ÿWPCõ  õÕ.p¿C}Ænb}Pª7_À~T ÿø:cŠLéê=v€.p°im‰”aþÒ¹áêGÅ9¢ŠÜ*ó?Y ­ÞUV›­žîã”|–¬,}4¾¥özWׂDmúØýŒÏ‘Û4mzÚÍ—:¨?tQvqq=\ÃPŠÓn­&ž©ŸÄê@ïø_ItÛ¸ ãÎ4žûÛ] µ)@ÅÚ9³ ×åèÓ,"cv·i¹´ÎÑ~‰ì1ñBü¸\¤ #GŸ<\W’(øÎ-e£ìX¬Ég({qMWážÌ–@xQ¸9Í‚½”ÉP·Q«¤_ãÎöÓ±‘È9îÀÃÆbo?á‚Í|•ŽáÒª¯`p¼†®…ÄËs™t§ZÁuAŽå#0#’JÚ.a$:89ÕµQTr7lÖê¾çcqî­íʧ_ ÃTeIáà2~Çg²ö5ý{Мå*û+‹Fdäd–™°*`§áìµ±}œ[ l­c ùÏï]-¬ûAKoE gÍaŠÌ »ivʯO=§GëYíl~H†³jÊ@ª%`„vo~oLÉ0‡;Léx4—zS|vqtjTŽYŸ¿`5q¨­LøÓ±FrCe©ð¹";.Zj |«{É"U(Ü % n­ 04ÇûUNwQ4U-i-–#ÉÃNŒ^ Žš mœU6³-éU4 4J 0N~ n­Ì Ny b{ U N n­Í Nz n­| N) n­+ NØ bÚ Þ <þ6XÙ`$PicaX3|x«<þ6XÙ`$PicaXÂxþ6X@ŽƒX@( ¤U$¡¡Ó  Ó(ÖÃ9 Z ‹6Times New Roman Regular¶K2 #Ñ#€Xÿÿd#Ñ #Ñ#€Xÿÿd#ј\\HASS_TREE\hist_frontqÈÈÈÈÈÈÈÈ0j~Ã2Ï ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ<ô\  `(Roman 10cpi #Ñ#€ÜîXÿÿd#Ñ}g ’ qZ ‹Parchment mailto:Norm.jones@usu.edu(ÍO$——ÔÿÔòòóóÔÿÔ«<þ6XÙ`$PicaXÂxþ6X@ŽƒX@9(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman Regular«<þ6XÙ`$PicaXÂxþ6X@ŽƒX@«<þ6XÙ`$PicaXÂxþ6X@ŽƒX@«<ô\  `(Roman 10cpiXÂxô\  @Ž”×õ X@ ù Ñ € ÑÝ ƒ¤U!ÝÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÔ€XSëXXXÔÑ€ úÑÑ8€SëXdìdÈ8ÑHistory€3220à ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àProf.€Norm€JonesÐ ° ÐMedieval€Europeà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  à323€Old€MainÐ œì ÐSummer€2005à ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À à€€€€€€€€€€€€797„1290€for€appointmentÐ ˆØ Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àÔ4‚Ý ÔÝ‚ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  ÔNorm.jones@usu.eduÔ6XÔÝ‚ÍOlƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý âšÔÐ tÄ ÐÌÌÌÌò òREQUIRED€TEXTSó óÐ  ` ÐÌà  àJudith€Bennett€and€C.€Warren€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô€,€òòMedieval€Europe.€A€Short€HistoryóóÐ è 8  ÐÌà  àPatrick€J.€Geary,€ed.,€òòReadings€in€Medieval€Historyóó€Ð À  ÐÌà  àThe€extended€syllabus€for€the€course€is€available€in€University€Bookstore.Ð ˜è  ÐÌÌÌò òREADING€AND€ASSIGNMENT€SCHEDULEó óÐ H˜ ÐÌò òJune€13„24€Part€1:€The€Age€of€Migrations€and€Invasionsó ó€Ð  p ÐÌNo€class€on€June€17Ð üL ÐNo€class€on€June€23€and€24Ð è8 ÐÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€1„49Ð À ÐÌGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Augustine,€òòCity€of€Godóó;€Ô_ÔJordanesÔ_Ô;€"Ô_ÔHildebrandliedÔ_Ô";€Gregory€of€Tours;€St.Ð ˜è ÐBenedict;€Gregory€the€Great;€Ô_ÔBedeÔ_Ô;€€Ô_ÔAsserÔ_Ô's€òòKing€Alfredóó;€Anglo„Saxon€Chronicle;€Ô_ÔEinhardÔ_Ô.Ð „Ô Ðà  àÌÌÌà0  àEssay€on€Christian€conversion€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.,€June€20.Ð4"„ (#(# ÐÌà0  àEssay€on€church€and€state€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.,€June€27.Ð $\"(#(# ÐÌÌ€€€€€à  àÐ Ð& "% ÐÌò òJune€27„July€8€Part€2:€Expansion€and€Stabilization,€1000„1300ó óÐ ¨(ø#' ÐÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€149„288.Ð €*Ð%) ÐÐ l+¼&* ÐGeary,€òòReadings:óó€€Ô_ÔFulbertÔ_Ô€of€Chartres;€Hugh€of€Ô_ÔLusignanÔ_Ô;€4€Accounts€of€Crusades;€Ô_ÔLiudprandÔ_Ô€ofÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔCremonaÔ_Ô;€Investiture€Controversy;€Concordat€of€Worms;€Otto€of€Ô_ÔFreisingÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔJoinvilleÔ_Ô;€DomesdayÐ œì ÐBook;€Magna€Carta;€Richard€Ô_ÔfitzÔ_Ô€Nigel.Ð ˆØ ÐÌà  àEssay€on€the€Investiture€Controversy€documents€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00,€July€1.Ð `° ÐÌà  àEssay€on€the€feudal€contract€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00,€July€8.Ð 8 ˆ Ðà  àÌÌÌò òJuly€11„22€Part€3:€The€Later€Middle€Agesó óÐ è 8  ÐÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€321„365Ð À  ÐÌGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Canons€of€4th€Ô_ÔLateranÔ_Ô€Council;€Mendicants,€Jacques€Ô_ÔFournierÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€Padua;Ð ˜è  ÐCharles€IV,€òòAutobiographyóó;€Golden€Bull;€òòÔ_ÔEnquetsÔ_Ôóó;€Ô_ÔFroissartÔ_Ô;€royal€courts;€medieval€village€plan;Ð „Ô  ÐÔ_ÔCastatoÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔDatiÔ_Ô.Ð pÀ ÐÌÌà0  àEssay€on€òòÔ_ÔQuodÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔomnesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔtangitÔ_Ô,óó€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€July€22,€Feast€of€St€MaryÐ 4„ ÐMagdaleneÐ p(#(# ÐÌà0  àEssay€on€the€decline€of€papal€power€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€July€15,€St.Ð øH ÐÔ_ÔSwithinÔ_Ôððs€DayÐä4(#(# ÐÌà0  àÐ (#(# ÐÌÌò òJuly€25„August€5€Part€4:Cultureó óÐ €Ð ÐÌNo€Class€August€1Ð X ¨ ÐÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€289„320,€366„83.Ð 0"€  ÐÌÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Ô_ÔMartinanusÔ_Ô€Capella;€Augustine;€Anselm;€Bernard€of€Ô_ÔClairvauxÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔGuibertÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔNogentÔ_Ô;Ð $X" ÐBonaventure;€Ô_ÔSigerÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔBrabantÔ_Ô;€Thomas€Aquinas;€Margery€Ô_ÔKempeÔ_Ô.Ô#†XSëXXXSë½#ÔÐ ô$D # ÐÌÌà  àEssay€on€God€and€Creation€€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€on€July€29.Ð ¸'#& ÐÌÌÌà  àÐ h+¸&* ÐÑ úÑâ  âÑ8€SëXXdìXdì8Ñâ  âÑ  Ñà  àÌà  à€Ð œì ÐÌÌÌÌÌGOALSÐ $ t ÐÌÌà  àThis€course€surveys€the€political€and€cultural€history€of€the€European€Middle€Ages€from€theÐ è 8  Ðtime€of€the€decline€of€the€Roman€Empire€in€the€west€to€the€15th€century.€€Its€goals€are€(1)€to€give€theÐ Ô$  Ðstudent€a€familiarity€with€the€Medieval€roots€of€modern€western€civilization€(2)€to€give€the€studentÐ À  Ða€"talking€knowledge"€of€the€key€events€of€Medieval€history€and€(3)€to€teach€the€student€to€use€theÐ ¬ü  Ðdocumentary€evidence€concerning€the€Middle€Ages€as€a€trained€historian,€asking€critical€questionsÐ ˜è  Ðin€order€to€gain€a€deeper€understanding€of€the€period.Ð „Ô  ÐÌà  àIn€order€to€achieve€these€goals€I€have€designed€a€writing€intensive€course€that€focuses€onÐ \¬ Ðoriginal€documents.€€Believing€that€the€fun€in€history€is€wringing€knowledge€out€of€the€sources,€I€amÐ H˜ Ðanxious€to€teach€you€to€do€it€for€yourself,€and€that€can€only€be€done€if€you€order€your€thoughts€onÐ 4„ Ðpaper€until€historical€thinking€becomes€a€habit.€€Ð  p ÐÌà  àEach€week's€assignments€are€detailed€in€the€syllabus.€€It€has€been€designed€to€make€learningÐ øH Ðas€easy€and€coherent€as€possible,€if€you€know€how€to€use€it.€€The€short€discussion€of€each€week'sÐ ä4 Ðmaterial€is€really€a€summary€of€what€I€want€you€to€understand€about€that€section€of€the€course.€€TheÐ Ð  Ðstudy€questions€are€designed€to€make€you€think€about€particular€aspects€of€the€week's€work,€to€readÐ ¼  Ðcarefully,€and€to€integrate€what€you€read€into€a€single€framework.€€You€will€notice€that€I€€ask€you€toÐ ¨ø Ðuse€the€evidence€from€the€original€sources€in€answering€the€study€questions,€and€that€they€often€takeÐ ”ä Ðtheir€point€of€departure€from€a€scholar's€observation.€€In€preparing€these€I€hope€that€you€will€beginÐ €Ð Ðto€understand€how€an€historian€derives€a€reasoned,€coherent€knowledge€of€the€past.Ð l¼ ÐÌà  àBefore€you€attempt€to€outline€the€answers€to€the€study€questions€work€out€the€definitions€andÐ D!” Ðsignificance€of€the€vocabulary€terms.€€Then€match€the€terms€with€the€essays.€€You€will€find€that€aÐ 0"€  Ðgood€essay€uses€the€appropriate€vocabulary€words.€€When€I€grade€I€look€for€the€vocabulary€terms€inÐ #l! Ðthe€essay;€if€they€are€not€there€you€have€not€used€the€appropriate€terminology€(or€evidence),€and€yourÐ $X" Ðgrade€will€suffer€accordingly.Ð ô$D # ÐÌà  àYou€will€find€an€essay€assignment€made€for€most€weeks.€€The€point€of€these€exercises€is€toÐ Ì&"% Ðteach€you€to€read€an€historical€source€as€an€historian€would,€to€write€well,€and€to€use€the€vocabulary.€Ð ¸'#& ÐIn€writing€the€essays€you€ask€questions€of€the€documents€that€will€expand€your€knowledge€of€theÐ ¤(ô#' Ðsubject.€€Ultimately,€of€course,€the€essays€are€all€ð ðpre„writingðð€for€the€final€essay.Ð )à$( ÐÌÐ h+¸&* ÐòòTESTS€AND€GRADINGóóÐ ° ÐÌà  àYour€grade€in€the€course€will€be€based€upon€a€eight€essays€and€the€€Portfolio€Essay.€EachÐ ˆØ Ðessay€is€worth€30€points,€and€the€portfolio€essay€you€may€earn€200€points.€Each€essay€isÐ tÄ Ðautomatically€worth€30€points€as€long€as€it€is€turned€in.€If€an€essay€is€not€turned€in€you€will€lose€40Ð `° Ðpoints€for€each€missing€paper.€You€may€also€earn€extra€points€if€your€portfolio€essays€are€chosen€asÐ L œ Ð"best€of€the€week."€€€€If€you€do€not€participate€in€your€peer€response€group€you€will€lose€20€pointsÐ 8 ˆ Ðfor€each€occurrence.€I€do€not€grade€on€a€curve;€you€will€get€exactly€what€you€earn.€€If€you€earn€moreÐ $ t Ðthan€93%€of€the€possible€points€you€will€get€an€'A';€90„93%€an€'A„';€87„90%€a€'B+';€€83„87%€a€'B';Ð  ` Ðetc.Ð ü L  Ðà  àÌòòÌò òóóRESPONSE€GROUPSó óÐ À  ÐÌà  àRather€than€grade€your€weekly€essays€myself€I€am€using€peer€group€evaluation.€€Papers€willÐ ˜è  Ðbe€posted€to€the€Ô_ÔSyallabaseÔ_Ô€site€before€class€on€the€day€they€are€due;€shortly€after,€you€will€critiqueÐ „Ô  Ðall€the€papers€in€the€group€assigned€to€you€your€group.€The€purpose€of€this€is€to€teach€you€how€toÐ pÀ Ðread€critically,€asking€questions€about€content,€evidence€and€style.€€In€the€process€you€will€learn€moreÐ \¬ Ðhistory,€about€how€to€write€history,€and€about€your€own€writing.Ð H˜ ÐÌà  à€Anyone€whose€paper€is€chosen€as€one€of€the€week's€best€will€receive€a€5€point€bonus.€òòóóÐ  p Ðà  àÌà  àAfter€the€members€of€the€group€have€read€each€paper€and€responded€to€it€on„line,€they€willÐ øH Ðspend€a€few€minutes€in€class€choosing€the€paper€they€believe€is€the€best€in€the€group.€€They€will€thenÐ ä4 Ðgive€me€the€name€of€the€person€who€wrote€the€paper,€and€I€will€give€that€person€five€extra€points.€Ð Ð  ÐÌòòà  àFailure€to€turn€in€a€paper€will€result€in€a€penalty€of€30€points,€counted€against€the€possibleÐ ¨ø Ðnumber€of€points€in€the€class.€€In€short,€failure€to€turn€one€in€may€wreck€your€grade.Ð ”ä ÐóóÌòòà  àParticipation€in€the€reading€and€discussion€of€the€essays€is€essential€to€the€operation€of€theÐ l¼ Ðclass,€so€roll€will€be€taken.€Anyone€who€does€not€participate€in€his€or€her€group€will€lose€20€pointsÐ X ¨ Ðfor€each€missed€meeting€unless€you€have€a€legitimate€excuse€such€as€illness.óóÐ D!” ÐÌà  àòòBecause€this€course€expects€a€great€deal€of€collegial€interaction€I€cannot€grant€anyÐ #l! ÐÔ_ÔincompletesÔ_Ô.€€There€would€be€no€way€to€make€up€participation€in€peer€response€groups.€€IF€YOUÐ $X" ÐARE€HAVING€TROUBLE€IN€THE€COURSE€SEE€ME€A€SOON€AS€POSSIBLE.óóÐ ô$D # ÐòòÑ€ úÑÌò òóóESSAYSó óÐ Ì&"% ÐÌà  àThese€are€short€essays,€not€more€than€two€pages€in€length,€responding€to€a€study€question.€Ð ¤(ô#' ÐThey€are€designed€to€make€you€analyze€the€documents€at€various€levels,€teaching€you€to€think€as€anÐ )à$( Ðhistorian.€€Once€you€have€answered€the€questions€you€should€write€a€small€essay€that€answers€themÐ |*Ì%) Ðall€in€relation€to€one€another.€Ð h+¸&* ЇÌWhenever€you€quote€a€work€or€paraphrase€its€argument,€cite€the€page€or€website€subheading€onÐ œì Ðwhich€it€is€found.€Ð ˆØ ÐÌò òCitationó óÐ `° ÐÌà  àIn€all€the€essays€you€must€cite€any€sources€you€use.€€In€citing€them€follow€these€rules:Ð 8 ˆ ÐÌÌ1.€€A€first€citation€of€a€source€must€be€a€full€citation€in€this€form:Ð ü L  Ðà0  àAuthor's€first€and€last€named€[ed.€or€trans.]€òòTitleóó€(Place€of€Publication:€Date€ofÐ è 8  ÐPublication),[volume],€page€#.ÐÔ$ (#(# ÐÌà  àThus€a€reference€to€a€monograph€might€read:Ð ¬ü  ÐÌà0  àNorman€Jones,€òòGod€and€the€Moneylenders:€Usury€and€the€Law€in€Early€Modern€EnglandóóÐ „Ô  Ð(Oxford:€1989),€23.ÐpÀ(#(# ÐÌ2.€€If€citing€an€article€in€an€edited€collection€the€note€should€look€like€this:Ð H˜ ÐÌà  àAristotle,€òòPoliticsóó,€in€Donald€V.€Ô_ÔGochbergÔ_Ô,€ed.€òòClassics€of€Western€Thought.€€The€Ancient€Ð  p Ðà  àWorldóó€4th€ed.€(New€York:€1989),€369.Ð  \ ÐÌ3.€€If€you€wish€to€cite€an€article€in€a€journal€the€note€should€include:Ð ä4 Ðà0  àfirst€and€last€name€of€author,€"title€of€the€article,"€òòname€of€the€journalóó€issue€number€(year),Ð Ð  Ðpage€#.м (#(# ÐÌà  àThus:Ð ”ä Ðà0  àKenneth€Bartlett,€"Papal€Policy€and€the€English€Crown,€1563„1565:€the€Ô_ÔBertanoÔ_ÔÐ €Ð ÐCorrespondence,"€òòSixteenth€Century€Journalóó€23€(l992),€643„660.Ðl¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àà ° à4.€€After€you€have€cited€a€work€once€you€need€not€cite€it€in€full€again.€€Instead€use€a€short€title€formÐ D!” Ðcontaining€the€author's€last€name,€abbreviated€title,€and€page€number:Ð0"€ (#(# ÐÌà  àJones,€òòMoneylendersóó,€369.Ð $X" ÐÌÌà0  àà ° à5.€€€If€you€have€consecutive€citations€to€the€same€work€you€should€use€Ibid.,€the€abbreviated€formÐ Ì&"% Ðof€the€Latin€word€òòIbidemóó,€meaning€"the€same."€€This,€having€already€cited€Jones,€your€notesÐ ¸'#& Ðwould€look€like€this:Ф(ô#'(#(# ÐÌà  à1.€à ` àJones,€òòMoneylendersóó,€369.òòÐ |*Ì%) ÐÐ h+¸&* Ðà  àóó2.€€à ` àIbid.òòÐ ° ÐÌà  àóó3.€€à ` àIbid.,€373.òòÐ ˆØ ÐóóÌà0  àà ° à6.€€Citation€of€electronic€sources€follows€a€similar€logical€pattern.€Provide€the€author,€title,€URL€andÐ `° Ðdate€of€access.ÐL œ(#(# ÐÌÌÌÌò ò€PORTFOLIO€ESSAYó óÐ è 8  ÐÌà  àThis€essay,€worth€200€points,€is€a€summary€of€the€writing€you€have€done€for€the€class,Ð À  Ðanswering€a€question€about€the€patterns€in€Medieval€history€made€visible€through€the€course.€€It€willÐ ¬ü  Ðdepend€heavily€on€the€essays€you€have€already€written.Ð ˜è  ÐÌà  àThe€question€for€the€Portfolio€Essay€will€be€distributed€two€weeks€before€the€essay€is€due.€Ð pÀ ÐThe€essay€will€be€no€longer€than€five€typed,€double€spaced€pages.Ð \¬ ÐÌÌÌÐ   \ ÐÑe°ÑÑ€<âÑÑ€!'ÑÌòòÔ‡Xè1XXXSëÔóóò òÔ‡„m¯„XXè1ÔÓ  ÓSources€for€the€Study€of€Medieval€EuropeÔ#†Xè1X„„m¯b<#Ôó óÐ Qì ÐÔ#†XSëXXXè1=<#ÔÓ<ÓÌà  àThe€study€of€Medieval€Europe€was€pioneered€by€lawyers.€€As€European€legal€systemsÐ } Ðchanged€in€the€18th€century€they€found€it€more€and€more€necessary€to€understand€the€documentaryÐ i Ðfoundations€on€which€property€claims€rested.€€This€required€them€to€develop€the€Ô_ÔpaleographicalÔ_Ô€andÐ U ð Ðlinguistic€tools€necessary€to€make€sense€of€things€written€between€the€fall€of€the€Roman€Ð A Ü ÐEmpire€and€the€late€sixteenth€century.Ð - È ÐÌà  àThe€work€of€these€18th€and€19th€century€lawyers€(one€thinks€especially€of€Ô_ÔF.W.Ô_Ô€Maitland€inÐ     ÐEngland€whose€òòDomesday€book€and€Beyondóó€became€a€classic€exploration€of€English€social€historyÐ ñ Œ  Ðthrough€legal€records)€was€supplemented€in€the€mid„19th€century€by€the€work€of€romantics€andÐ Ýx  Ðnationalists.€€Seeking€the€origins€of€their€nations€in€Medieval€events€Europeans€began€to€collect,Ð Éd  Ðcompile,€and€index€the€records€of€the€Middle€Ages.€€Out€of€these€attempts€to€prove,€for€instance,€thatÐ µP  Ðdemocracy€was€an€invention€of€the€German€tribes€and€that€Germany€had€a€common€history,€aroseÐ ¡<  Ðgreat€national€record€series,€many€of€which€are€still€growing.€€The€òòÔ_ÔMonumentaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGermaniaeÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔHistoricaÔ_Ôóó€Ð ( Ð[cited€at€the€òòÔ_ÔMGHÔ_Ôóó]€was€the€first,€but€the€òòRerum€Ô_ÔBritannicarumÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔmediiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔaeviÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔscriptoresÔ_Ôóó€(Ô_ÔakaÔ_Ô€òòThe€RollsÐ y ÐSeriesóó)€for€Britain,€the€òòÔ_ÔRecueilÔ_Ô€des€Ô_ÔhistoriensÔ_Ô€des€Ô_ÔGaulesÔ_Ô€et€de€la€Franceóó€for€France€and€the€òòÔ_ÔFontiÔ_ÔÐ e Ðper€la€Ô_ÔstoriaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔdððItaliaÔ_Ôóó€€and€òòRerum€Ô_ÔitalicorumÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔscriptoresÔ_Ô€óófor€Italy€followed.€Ð Qì ÐÌà  à€The€romantic€attachment€to€the€Middle€Ages€€that€developed€in€response€to€the€industrialÐ )Ä Ðrevolution€led€to€a€revival€of€medieval€architecture,€especially€for€churches,€and€attempts€to€Ð ° Ðreturn€to€the€ð ðAge€of€Faithðð€and€chivalry.€€This€stimulated€a€great€interest€in€Medieval€Christianity,Ð œ Ðnecessitating€the€forging€of€research€tools.€€The€greatest€is€probably€the€òòÔ_ÔPatroligiaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔcursusÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔcompletusÔ_Ô,Ð íˆ Ðseries€Ô_ÔLatinaÔ_Ô€et€Graecaóó€compiled€by€JP€Ô_ÔMigneÔ_Ô€in€France.€€A€collection€of€all€the€theological€worksÐ Ùt Ðof€the€Greek€and€Latin€fathers,€it€is€a€standard€reference€work€cited€as€simply€òòPLóó€and€òòPGóó,€dependingÐ Å` Ðon€whether€it€refers€to€the€Latin€or€Greek€volumes.Ð ±L ÐÌà  àExplanations€of€these€collections€and€their€contents€can€be€found€in€Ô_ÔR.C.Ô_Ô€van€Ô_ÔCaenegemÔ_ÔððsÐ ‰$ ÐòòGuide€to€the€Sources€of€Medieval€Historyóó.€€The€history€of€these€projects€is€entertainingly€traced€by€Ð u ÐDavid€Ô_ÔKnowlesÔ_Ô,€òòGreat€Historical€Enterprisesóó.€Ð a ü ÐÌà  àThe€newest€development€in€Medieval€Studies€is€the€appearance€of€sources€and€references€onÐ 9"Ô  Ðthe€World€Wide€Web.€€Ô_ÔMedievalistsÔ_Ô€have€taken€the€lead€in€the€electronic€revolution,€built€manyÐ %#À! ÐÔ_ÔwebsitesÔ_Ô€that€give€us€access€to€both€original€and€translated€texts,€art€galleries,€reference€collections,€Ð $¬" Ðmuseums€and€other€tools.€€These€electronic€files€are€making€the€study€of€the€Middle€Ages€easier€thanÐ ý$˜ # Ðever€before.€€However,€remember€that,€like€all€Ô_ÔwebsitesÔ_Ô€the€quality€of€the€material€on„line€is€highlyÐ é%„!$ Ðvariable.€€Most€of€it€is€entered€by€volunteers€and€there€is€not€much€quality€control,€so€it€must€be€usedÐ Õ&p"% Ðwith€care.€€Moreover,€Ô_ÔwebsitesÔ_Ô€tend€to€contain€translations€which€are€out€of€copyright€so€that€theyÐ Á'\#& Ðmay€not€reflect€the€most€recent€scholarship€or€translation€standards.€€Ð ­(H$' ÐÌà  àThere€a€many€national€and€regional€journals€that€study€Medieval€history,€but€only€a€fewÐ …* &) Ðsupranational€ones€that€attempt€broad€coverage.€€The€broadest€is€probably€òòSpeculum.€The€JournalÐ q+ '* ÐÑ úÑâ  âÑ8€SëXXdìXXdì8Ñâ  âÑ  Ñof€the€Medieval€Academy€of€Americaóó.€€One€of€the€best€for€bibliographical€coverage€is€the€òòRevueÐ e ÐÔ_ÔdððHistoireÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔEcclesiastiqueÔ_Ôóó€(despite€being€edited€in€French€it€is€easy€to€use€if€you€know€no€French).Ð Qì ÐFor€€leading€articles€on€Medieval€€social€history€try€òòÔ_ÔAnnalesÔ_Ô.€Ô_ÔEconomieÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔsocieteÔ_Ô€et€Ô_ÔcivilisationÔ_Ôóó.€€TheÐ =Ø ÐòòJournal€of€Medieval€Historyóó€tends€to€focus€more€on€traditional€historical€scholarship€rather€thanÐ )Ä Ðexploring€new€paths.€€For€the€late€Middle€Ages€the€òòÔ_ÔArchivÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔfrÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔReformationsgeschichteÔ_Ô/Archive€forÐ ° ÐReformation€History€óóis€the€best.Ð  œ ÐÌà  àFinally€a€note€on€languages.€€As€you€can€see€from€the€bibliographical€review,€the€study€ofÐ Ù t ÐMedieval€history€requires€a€reading€knowledge€of€several€languages.€€The€common€tongue€forÐ Å ` ÐÔ_ÔMedievalistsÔ_Ô€is€Latin,€just€as€it€was€for€the€people€whose€writings€they€study.€€Articles€and€booksÐ ± L  Ðabout€the€Middle€Ages€are€published€in€all€the€modern€European€languages€so€a€Medievalist€mustÐ  8  Ðbe€able€to€read€several.€€English,€French,€German€and€Italian€are€the€common€ones,€though€SpanishÐ ‰$  Ðmight€be€substituted€for€German€if€one€is€working€on€southwest€Europe.€€Ð u  ÐÌà  àThe€polyglot€training€of€Ô_ÔMedievalistsÔ_Ô€is€matched€by€their€breadth.€€Because€the€remnants€ofÐ Mè  Ðthe€Middle€Ages€are€sparse€scholars€must€make€use€of€everything.€€Modern€distinctions€betweenÐ 9Ô  Ðhistory,€literature,€architecture,€archeology,€musicology€and€a€host€of€other€subjects€break€downÐ %À Ðbecause€sources€of€every€kind€must€be€used€if€any€knowledge€can€be€gained.€€For€example,€a€scholarÐ ¬ Ðworking€on€the€Cistercian€Orderððs€infirmary€system€finds€it€as€important€to€understand€music€historyÐ ý˜ Ðand€its€application€to€the€history€of€medicine€as€it€is€to€decipher€the€Latin€records€of€the€monasteries.€Ð é„ ÐThis€is€why€Medieval€history€is€so€much€fun!Ð Õp ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ  ,¤'+ ÐÑ<â Ñâ âÑ8€SëXXdìXXdì8Ñâ âÑ  ÑÑ€ÑÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIÐ Qì ЀÌà  àà ` àTHE€AGE€OF€MIGRATIONS€AND€INVASIONS,€CA.€350„1000Ð )Ä ÐReading:Ð ° Ѐà  àReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€1„49Ð  œ ÐÌà0  àGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Augustine,€òòCity€of€Godóó;€Ô_ÔJordanesÔ_Ô;€"Ô_ÔHildebrandliedÔ_Ô";€Gregory€of€Tours;€St.Ð Ù t ÐBenedict;€Ô_ÔGegoryÔ_Ô€the€Great;€Ô_ÔBedeÔ_Ô;€€Ô_ÔAsserÔ_Ô's€òòKing€Alfredóó;€Anglo„Saxon€Chronicle;€Ô_ÔEinhardÔ_Ô.ÐÅ `(#(# Ðà  àÌà  àÌEssay€on€Christian€conversion€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.,€June€20Ð ‰$  ÐEssay€on€church€and€state€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.,€June€27Ð u  ÐÌEssay€Questions:Ð Mè  Ð1.à0  àThe€early€Middle€Ages€are€characterized€by€a€close€relationship€between€the€church€and€theÐ 9Ô  Ðsecular€power.€Using€the€evidence€in€Ô_ÔAsserÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔEinhardÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔBedeÔ_Ô,€Gregory€of€Tours,€and€St.Ð %À ÐAugustine€demonstrate€why€was€this€so€and€what€forms€it€took.€€Ð¬(#(# ÐÌ2.€€€à0  àThe€glue€that€bound€German,€Scandinavian,€Celtic€and€Roman€cultures€together€into€aÐ é„ ÐEuropean€culture€was€Roman€Catholic€Christianity.€Using€examples€from€Gregory€of€Tours,Ð Õp ÐÔ_ÔBedeÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔEinhardÔ_Ô,€and€Gregory€the€Great€demonstrate€how€people€in€the€early€Middle€AgesÐ Á\ Ðwould€explain€their€conversions.ЭH(#(# ÐÌVocabularyÐ …  Ðà  àSt.€Augustine€€€€€€€€€€€€€Gregory€the€GreatÐ q  Ðà  àRule€of€St.€Benedict€€€St.€Augustine€of€CanterburyÐ ]ø Ðà  àSt.€Columbaà ¸ àà  àÔ_ÔCarolingiansÔ_ÔÐ Iä Ðà  àVikingsà ¸ àà  à€Holy€Roman€EmpireÐ 5Ð Ðà  àÔ_ÔMerovingiansÔ_Ô€€€€€€€€€€€€€€auricular€confessionÐ !¼ Ðà  àÔ_ÔOttoniansÔ_Ô€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€St.€PatrickÐ  ¨ Ðà  àòòÔ_ÔordoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔclericorumÔ_Ôóó€€€€€€€€Byzantine€EmpireÐ ù ” Ðà  àÔ_ÔAlcuinÔ_Ô€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Sylvester€IIÐ å!€  ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ  ,¤'+ ÐÑ!' Ñâ !âÑ€ Ñâ !âÑ  ÑÌÌÌà@ÍÍ*ìàIˆÐ )Ä ÐÌà  àIn€476€A.D.€the€last€Roman€Emperor€in€the€West,€a€child€named€Ô_ÔRomulusÔ_Ô€"Ô_ÔAugustulusÔ_Ô"€wasÐ  œ Ðdeposed€by€Ô_ÔOdoacerÔ_Ô,€the€commander€of€the€German€mercenaries€hired€to€protect€Italy€from€theÐ í ˆ ÐGermans.€€Ô_ÔRomulusÔ_Ô'€fall€marks€the€end€of€the€continuous€rule€of€Rome€over€Western€Europe€for€theÐ Ù t Ðprevious€600€years.€€Like€many€things€in€history,€however,€it€is€an€outward€sign€of€the€inward€rot€thatÐ Å ` Ðhad€beset€the€Western€Empire€since€the€third€century.€€By€then€continual€succession€crises€andÐ ± L  Ðinternal€corruption€had€combined€with€a€decaying€economy€to€sap€the€West€of€its€strength€even€asÐ  8  ÐRome's€borders€came€under€increasing€pressure€from€external€enemies.€€On€the€Rhine/DanubeÐ ‰$  Ðfrontier€German€tribes,€pushed€west€by€the€Huns€and€enthusiastic€about€acquiring€Roman€booty,Ð u  Ðbegan€to€raid€across€the€rivers.€€At€the€same€time€the€renascent€Persian€Empire€threatened€RomanÐ aü  Ðcontrol€over€Asia€Minor.€€In€the€midst€of€it€all€the€Empire€was€wracked€by€social€tension,€not€leastÐ Mè  Ðbecause€of€the€increasingly€visible€Christian€movement.€Ð 9Ô  ÐÌà  àBeginning€with€his€succession€in€286€the€Emperor€Ô_ÔDiocletianÔ_Ô€began€a€reorganization€of€theÐ ¬ ÐEmpire€designed€to€stave€off€collapse.€€For€the€West€his€most€important€decision€was€to€reform€theÐ ý˜ ÐImperial€government.€€He€divided€the€Empire€into€two€halves,€each€half€ruled€by€an€emperor€assistedÐ é„ Ðby€a€caesar,€or€vice„emperor.€€Ô_ÔDiocletianÔ_Ô€had€intended€by€this€to€solve€the€communications€problemÐ Õp Ðthe€immense€size€of€the€empire€created€and€to€provide€for€smooth€succession.€€In€the€end€it€did€notÐ Á\ Ðwork.€€Instead€he€created€a€new€cause€of€civil€war€as€western€and€eastern€emperors€fought€oneÐ ­H Ðanother.€€Moreover,€it€explicitly€separated€the€West€from€the€East,€a€separation€baptized€byÐ ™4 ÐConstantine€when,€in€324,€he€moved€the€Imperial€capitol€east€to€Constantinople.€Ð …  ÐÌà  àThe€increasing€weakness€of€the€Western€Empire€was€compounded€by€its€increasingÐ ]ø Ðdependence€on€German€tribesmen€to€fill€the€ranks€of€its€armies.€€The€imperial€court,€established€atÐ Iä ÐRavenna€in€402,€used€them€to€ward€off€other€Germans,€occasionally€winning€major€victories,€suchÐ 5Ð Ðas€that€over€Attila€the€Hun€in€451.€€The€fact€was,€however,€that€by€then€the€Roman€army€had€becomeÐ !¼ Ða€motley€collection€of€Romans,€German€mercenaries,€German€federated€tribes,€and€even€Huns.€Ð  ¨ ÐWhen€Ô_ÔOdoacerÔ_Ô€removed€"the€little€Emperor"€Ô_ÔRomulusÔ_Ô€in€476€he€was€recognizing€that€the€EmpireÐ ù ” Ðhad€already€succumbed€to€the€German€tribes€that€had€been€sweeping€through€it€for€nearly€200€years.€Ð å!€  ÐÌÌà  àTo€a€5th€century€observer€it€must€have€seemed€as€if€the€entire€world€was€on€the€move.€Ð ©$D # ÐAngles,€Saxons,€and€Jutes€were€leaving€northern€Germany€for€Britain;€Riparian€and€Salic€Franks€hadÐ •%0!$ Ðcome€to€rest€in€France€and€the€Low€Countries;€Ô_ÔLombardsÔ_Ô€were€in€northern€Italy;€Spain€was€in€theÐ &"% Ðhands€of€the€Ô_ÔVisigothsÔ_Ô;€Italy€was€ruled€by€the€Ô_ÔOstrogothsÔ_Ô;€and€everyone€suffered€at€the€hands€of€theÐ m'#& ÐVandals€until€they€eventually€settled€into€a€decadent€life€in€North€Africa.€€The€Roman€emperors€inÐ Y(ô#' Ðthe€East,€most€notably€Justinian€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.482„565)€tried€to€win€back€the€West,€but€they€were€unable€to€holdÐ E)à$( Ðit,€in€part€because€the€Ô_ÔAvarsÔ_Ô,€a€nomadic€people€moving€into€central€Europe,€organized€the€Slavs€andÐ 1*Ì%) Ðbegan€to€attack€the€Byzantine€(Eastern€Roman)€Empire.€€Meanwhile,€plague€ravaged€the€urbanÐ +¸&* Ðcenters€of€the€Romans€and€they€Ô_ÔquarrelledÔ_Ô€bitterly€over€religion.€Ð  ,¤'+ Їà  àConstantine€I€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.284„337)€had€embraced€Christianity€in€the€early€4th€century,€continuing€theÐ e Ðpolicy€of€Ô_ÔDiocletianÔ_Ô,€who€had€tried€to€unify€the€Empire€through€religion.€€Ô_ÔDiocletianÔ_Ô,€however,€hadÐ Qì Ðtried€to€destroy€Christianity€in€the€Great€Persecution€of€303„6€because€it€refused€to€recognize€theÐ =Ø ÐEmperor€as€a€God.€€Constantine€began€the€process€of€making€Christianity€the€only€legal€religion.€Ð )Ä ÐUnfortunately,€Christian€theology€was€not€in€a€fit€state€to€be€useful€to€the€state,€so€ConstantineÐ ° Ðintervened€to€establish€theological€peace.€€The€result€of€the€council€he€called€and€presided€over€atÐ  œ ÐÔ_ÔNiaceaÔ_Ô€in€325€was€the€doctrine€of€the€Trinity,€but€it€did€not€bring€peace.€€Increasingly€rival€ChristianÐ í ˆ Ðtheologies€became€associated€with€rival€political€groups€in€the€state.€€Even€as€the€ChristiansÐ Ù t ÐÔ_ÔquarrelledÔ_Ô€the€non„Christian€populace€saw€its€religions€dispossessed€and€found€themselvesÐ Å ` Ðpersecuted.€€In€490€Theodosius€I€made€Christianity€the€only€legal€religion.€Ð ± L  ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔ1.€Ô_ÔTheodosianÔ_Ô€CodeÐ  8  Ð2.€Augustine€of€Hippo€On€Christian€Doctrine€City€of€God€Ð ‰$  Ð3.€St.€Ô_ÔPerpetuaÔ_Ô€The€Passion€of€Saints€Ô_ÔPerpetuaÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔFelicitasÔ_ÔÔ#†XSëXXXSë»}#ÔÐ u  Ðà  àOne€Christian€response€to€the€troubles€of€the€late€Roman€Empire€was€monasticism.€It€hadÐ aü  Ðsprung€from€the€attempt€of€faithful€Christians€to€keep€alive€the€sense€of€self„sacrifice€created€duringÐ Mè  Ðthe€years€of€persecution.€Unable€to€physically€die€for€the€faith,€they€sought€to€return€to€the€purity€ofÐ 9Ô  Ðthe€Garden€of€Eden€through€a€death€to€the€social€world€that€was€the€source€of€evil.€Beginning€in€theÐ %À Ð3òòrdóó€century€the€movement€became€popular,€reaching€maturity€in€the€5òòthóó€century.€€It€mature€form€wasÐ ¬ Ðfixed€by€St.€Benedict€of€Ô_ÔNursiaÔ_Ô,€abbot€of€Monte€Cassino,€with€his€Rule.€The€Rule€became€the€guideÐ ý˜ Ðfor€future€monasticism€in€the€West.Ð é„ ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔ12.€Saint€Benedict€Rule€for€MonasteriesÔ#†XSëXXXSë}‚#ÔÐ Õp Ðà  àOf€course,€in€the€West€no€one€was€listening€to€Theodosius,€but€there,€too,€religiousÐ Á\ Ðdifferences€led€to€hostilities.€€Many€of€the€Germans€were€Ô_ÔArianÔ_Ô€Christians;€many€of€the€Romans€theyÐ ­H Ðconquered€were€Roman€Catholics.€€Many€other€Germans€were€pagans,€and,€of€course,€there€wereÐ ™4 Ðmany€non„Christian€Romans€as€well.€Ð …  ÐÌà  àThe€net€effects€of€the€German€invasions€and€the€collapse€of€Roman€government€wasÐ ]ø Ðtremendous€social€and€economic€displacement.€€(Something€which,€some€have€argued,€stimulatedÐ Iä Ðthe€flight€of€people€into€the€Christian€movement€with€its€rejection€of€this€world€and€hope€of€a€betterÐ 5Ð Ðhereafter.)€Ð !¼ ÐÌà  àBy€the€end€of€the€6th€century€German€tribes€controlled€all€of€the€old€Western€Empire,€as€wellÐ ù ” Ðas€Germany€itself.€€Where€there€had€been€dense€Roman€populations,€in€areas€like€Italy,€southernÐ å!€  ÐFrance,€and€Spain,€the€Germans€intermarried€with€the€locals€and€began€to€produce€the€cultures€andÐ Ñ"l! Ðlanguages€we€today€call€"romance."€€In€other€areas€the€culture€became€almost€entirely€German€as€theÐ ½#X" Ðthin€or€nonexistent€Roman€culture€was€swept€away.€€England€is€a€good€example€of€this.€€In€the€landsÐ ©$D # Ðbeyond€the€Rhine,€of€course,€Germans€remained€Germans.€€However,€in€all€those€regions€someÐ •%0!$ ÐRoman€influences€remained.€€Though€the€invaders€did€not€maintain€the€urban€culture€of€the€RomansÐ &"% Ðthey€adopted€part€of€Rome's€material€culture€and€language.€€Most€importantly,€they€rememberedÐ m'#& ÐRome€with€a€certain€reverence,€a€reverence€enhanced€by€the€continued€existence€of€the€RomanÐ Y(ô#' ÐEmpire€of€the€East.€€And€they€were,€or€later€became,€Christians,€acquiring,€unwittingly,€large€doseÐ E)à$( Ðof€Hellenistic€culture€and€Latin€language€with€the€faith.€Ð 1*Ì%) ÐÌÐ  ,¤'+ Ðà  àIt€took€a€long€time€for€a€new€dominant€culture€to€emerge€in€the€West.€€When€it€did,€by€aboutÐ e Ð1000,€it€was€an€amalgam€of€German€political€culture,€late€Roman€economic€and€social€forms,Ð Qì ÐChristian€religion,€and,€in€its€upper€reaches,€Greco„Roman€culture.€€Outside€of€the€MediterraneanÐ =Ø Ðthe€new€political€system€would€be€feudalism.€€It€may€be€defined€as€government€by€a€system€ofÐ )Ä Ðprivate€contracts€between€individuals€rather€than€by€a€sovereign€government€over€its€subjects.€€TheÐ ° Ðeconomic€system€that€supported€it€was€Ô_ÔmanorialismÔ_Ô.€€A€remnant€of€the€late€Roman€òòÔ_ÔcoloniÔ_Ôóó€system,Ð  œ Ðit€was€characterized€by€large,€nearly€self„sufficient€estates€whose€inhabitants€provided€the€labor€thatÐ í ˆ Ðsupported€their€feudal€governors.€€Christianity€came,€in€a€general€sense,€equipped€with€the€LatinÐ Ù t Ðlanguage,€the€monasteries,€the€theoretical€power€of€the€Pope,€and€a€universalist€outlook,€even€thoughÐ Å ` Ðit€proved€highly€adaptable€to€conditions.Ð ± L  ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌ4.€Ô_ÔTacitusÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGermaniaÔ_ÔÐ ‰$  Ð5.€Ô_ÔJordanesÔ_Ô€History€of€the€GothsÐ u  Ð6.€Ô_ÔHildebrandliedÔ_ÔÐ aü  ÐÔ#†XSëXXXSëÙ#ÔÌà  àThe€history€of€the€so„called€Dark€Ages€is€very€dark,€and€very€confusing,€but€we€can€describe,Ð 9Ô  Ðin€a€general€way,€how€the€new€culture€of€western€Europe€developed.€€The€establishment€of€stableÐ %À ÐGerman€states€and€Ô_ÔChristianizationÔ_Ô€were€the€first€steps€in€its€history.€Ð ¬ ÐÌà  àPolitical€institutions€began€to€stabilize€first€in€the€Ô_ÔFrankishÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMerovingianÔ_Ô€kingdom.€€OrganizedÐ é„ Ðfor€war,€the€Franks€were,€by€the€late€5th€century,€led€by€the€powerful€King€Clovis€(d.€511).€€UnderÐ Õp Ðthis€leadership€they€came€to€control,€by€the€late€6th€century,€almost€all€of€France€and€parts€of€ItalyÐ Á\ Ðand€Germany.€Ð ­H ÐÌà  àThe€Ô_ÔMerovingianÔ_Ô€kings,€by€the€mid„7th€century,€had€relinquished€personal€control€over€theirÐ …  Ðkingdom€to€officials€known€as€mayors€of€the€palace.€€One€of€these,€Charles€Ô_ÔMartelÔ_Ô,€reorganized€theÐ q  Ðkingdom.€€His€success€in€stopping€the€Muslim€invasion€in€732,€and€in€terrorizing€his€rivals,€theÐ ]ø ÐFranks€back€in€control€of€the€Ô_ÔMerovingianÔ_Ô€empire.€€His€son,€Ô_ÔPepinÔ_Ô€II,€colluded€with€Pope€StephenÐ Iä ÐII€to€depose€the€last€Ô_ÔMerovingianÔ_Ô€king€and€make€himself€the€first€Ô_ÔCarolingianÔ_Ô€king€of€the€Franks.€Ð 5Ð ÐIn€return€for€Stephen€II's€support,€Ô_ÔPepinÔ_Ô€subdued€the€Ô_ÔLombardsÔ_Ô€of€northern€Italy€and€gave€the€PopeÐ !¼ Ða€belt€of€land€stretching€from€Rome€to€Ravenna,€known€as€the€Donation€of€Ô_ÔPepinÔ_Ô€(754),€establishingÐ  ¨ Ðthe€papacy€as€a€secular€power„„changing€European€political€history€forever.€€The€Donation,€however,Ð ù ” Ðsymbolized€something€equally€important:€€the€union€of€church€and€state€in€an€often€stormy€butÐ å!€  Ðsymbiotic€relationship.€€Ð Ñ"l! ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌ7.€The€Tomb€of€Ô_ÔChildericÔ_Ô,€Father€of€ClovisÐ ©$D # Ð8.€Salic€LawÐ •%0!$ Ð9.€Bishops€Ô_ÔRemigiusÔ_Ô€of€Reims€and€Ô_ÔAvitusÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔVienneÔ_Ô€Letters€to€ClovisÐ &"% Ð10.€Gregory€of€Tours€History€of€the€FranksÐ m'#& Ð11.€Life€of€Saint€Ô_ÔBalthildÔ_ÔÔ#†XSëXXXSëà™#ÔÐ Y(ô#' ÐÌà  àÔ_ÔPepinÔ_Ô€III's€son€Charles€"Magnus"€("the€greater"„„usually€called€Charlemagne)€succeeded€himÐ 1*Ì%) Ðin€774.€€He€continued€his€father's€policies€of€military€expansion€and€alliance€with€the€Church,Ð +¸&* Ðcreating€a€kingdom€which€set€the€terms€for€much€of€the€political€development€of€Europe.€€HisÐ  ,¤'+ Ðconquests€gave€him€control€of€Europe€as€far€east€as€the€Elbe,€took€in€Austria€and€northern€Italy,€andÐ e Ðall€of€France€but€Brittany.€€From€his€palace€at€Aachen€(Aix„la„Ô_ÔChapelleÔ_Ô)€he€exerted€control€overÐ Qì Ðthese€lands€through€his€counts,€who,€in€turn€raised€their€troops€from€among€their€vassals.€Ð =Ø ÐCharlemagne€created€the€lineaments€of€feudalism€on€Europe.€Ð )Ä ÐÌà  àHe€was€also€instrumental€in€establishing€Roman€Catholicism€as€western€Europe's€faith.€Ð  œ ÐUsing€clergy€trained€in€his€palace€school€at€Aachen€in€combination€with€the€power€of€the€state,Ð í ˆ Ðwhich€forced€baptism€on€those€unwilling,€Charlemagne€and€his€descendants€finished€the€job€ofÐ Ù t Ðconversion€already€begun€by€Irish€monks.€Ð Å ` ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌ18.€Ô_ÔEinhardÔ_Ô€Life€of€Charles€the€GreatÐ  8  Ð19.€Selected€CapitulariesÔ#†XSëXXXSëÔ #ÔÐ ‰$  ÐÌà  àIreland€had€never€been€under€Roman€control.€€Greco„Roman€culture€arrived€there€along€withÐ aü  ÐChristianity.€€St.€Patrick€(373„461)€and€the€other€monks€who€evangelized€the€Irish€faced€problemsÐ Mè  Ðin€converting€them€that€Christianity€had€never€faced€before.€€How,€for€instance,€did€you€translate€theÐ 9Ô  Ðmessage€of€Christ€into€something€that€had€meaning€for€a€people€that€knew€nothing€of€Judaism,€whoÐ %À Ðhad€no€towns,€and€whose€society€had€a€totally€different€shape€than€that€of€the€Greco„Roman€world?€Ð ¬ ÐHow€was€a€priest€to€be€trained?€€Where€should€the€bishop€be€based?€€The€answers€they€found€madeÐ ý˜ Ðthem€extremely€effective€missionaries€to€the€Scots,€the€English,€the€Germans,€and€other€northernÐ é„ ÐEuropean€peoples.€€Men€like€St.€Columba,€who€went€to€the€Scots,€St.€Ô_ÔColumbanÔ_Ô€who€establishedÐ Õp Ðmonasteries€in€northern€France€and€then€in€Switzerland€and€northern€Italy,€and€St.€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€who€wasÐ Á\ Ðmartyred€by€the€Germans,€were€instrumental€in€spreading€Christianity€across€western€Europe.€€TheÐ ­H ÐÔ_ÔCarolingianÔ_Ô€empire€supported€their€efforts€and€overtly€linked€Ô_ÔCarolingianÔ_Ô€rule€and€ChristianityÐ ™4 Ðtogether.€Ð …  Ðà  àThese€Irish€missionaries€were€joined€by€missionaries€sent€by€Rome,€such€as€St.€Augustine,Ð q  Ðwho€went€to€southern€England€to€work€for€the€conversion€of€the€kingdoms€there.€These€southernÐ ]ø Ðkingdoms€came€together€in€the€eighth€century€as€the€Anglo„Saxon€Kingdom.Ð Iä ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔ13.€Gregory€the€Great€DialoguesÔ#†XSëXXXS뚨#ԀР5Ð ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔ15.€Ô_ÔBedeÔ_Ô€History€of€the€English€Church€and€People€Ð !¼ Ð14.€Laws€of€EthelbertÐ  ¨ Ð17.€Theodore€PenitentialÔ#†XSëXXXSë©#ÔÐ ù ” ÐÌà  àThese€conversion€efforts€cam€together€in€the€coronation€of€Charlemagne€as€Roman€emperorÐ Ñ"l! Ðby€the€pope€on€Christmas€day,€800.€€€Drawing€the€strands€of€Roman,€German,€and€ChristianÐ ½#X" Ðinheritances€together,€this€coronation€symbolizes€the€nature€of€the€new€culture€developing€in€Europe.€Ð ©$D # ÐThe€memory€of€the€old€Empire€and€the€commandments€of€the€Christian€God€were€both€drawn€uponÐ •%0!$ Ðto€support€the€authority€of€a€German€prince.€€But€at€the€same€time,€the€German€prince€recognizedÐ &"% Ðthe€superiority€of€God's€vicar€on€earth,€the€pope.€Ð m'#& ÐÌà  àNot€long€before€Charlemagne€was€crowned€Emperor€a€new€threat€appeared€in€Europe,€theÐ E)à$( ÐVikings.€€Population€pressure€and€greed€for€booty€combined€with€the€decline€of€Scandinavian€tradeÐ 1*Ì%) Ðto€turn€the€people€of€that€region€to€piracy.€€By€the€mid„9th€century€Viking€raids€were€causing€seriousÐ +¸&* Ðdisruptions€around€the€coasts€and€up€the€rivers€of€western€Europe.€€Coinciding€with€civil€war€in€theÐ  ,¤'+ ÐÔ_ÔCarolingianÔ_Ô€lands€the€Viking€expansion€had€disastrous€effects€for€the€political€and€cultural€worldsÐ e Ðof€the€early€Middle€Ages.€€Looting€and€destroying€monasteries€and€towns,€they€finished€off€theÐ Qì Ðcultural€renaissance€in€the€Ô_ÔcelticÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔCarolingianÔ_Ô€lands.€€At€the€same€time,€communities€were€forcedÐ =Ø Ðto€rely€on€their€own€resources,€often€physically€moving€to€more€defensible€positions.€€Ð )Ä ÐÌà  àAlthough€they€were€highly€destructive,€the€Vikings€also€played€an€important€role€in€theÐ  œ Ðformation€of€western€Europe.€€By€the€end€of€the€9th€century€Viking€armies€had€begun€to€settle€inÐ í ˆ Ðvarious€parts€of€the€continent.€€They€occupied€half€of€England,€the€northern€area€known€as€the€DaneÐ Ù t ÐLaw.€€Normandy€in€France€got€its€name€from€the€Northmen€who€occupied€it,€and€even€Sicily€becameÐ Å ` Ða€Viking€kingdom.€€In€these€places€Scandinavian€skills€and€language€mingled€with€the€local€cultures,Ð ± L  Ðgiving€them€distinctive€features.€€For€instance,€nearly€all€the€English€words€used€in€seafaring€areÐ  8  ÐScandinavian,€an€inheritance€from€those€great€seamen.€€Nor€should€it€be€forgotten€that€the€VikingsÐ ‰$  Ðonly€stole€in€order€to€sell.€€Their€trade€network€through€Russia,€down€the€Volga,€to€ConstantinopleÐ u  Ðtied€them€to€the€Byzantine€Empire.€€Vikings€sold€so€many€Ô_ÔslavicÔ_Ô€€captives€in€the€slave€markets€ofÐ aü  ÐConstantinople€that€the€name€Ô_ÔslavÔ_Ô€came€to€be€synonymous€with€slave.€Ð Mè  ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌ14.€Laws€of€EthelbertÔ#†XSëXXXSëxµ#ÔÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÐ %À Ð16.€King€Alfred€DoomsÐ ¬ ÐÌLetter€to€Edward€the€ElderÐ é„ ÐÔ_ÔAsserÔ_Ô's€LifeÐ Õp ÐAnglo-Saxon€ChronicleÐ Á\ ÐÔ#†XSëXXXSëе#ÔÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌÔ#†XSëXXXSëì¶#Ôà  àWhat€was€good€business€for€Vikings€was€equally€attractive€to€other€pirates.€€In€theÐ ™4 ÐMediterranean€Muslim€pirates€preyed€on€Italy,€southern€France,€and€Spain.€€In€central€Europe€fierceÐ …  ÐÔ_ÔmagyarÔ_Ô€horsemen€came€out€of€the€plains€of€Hungary€to€terrorize€their€neighbors.€€Ð q  ÐÌà  àThe€Mediterranean€had€once€been€an€economic€unit,€bound€together€by€the€Roman€Empire.€Ð Iä ÐThat€unity€had€continued€even€as€the€Empire€declined,€but€in€the€8th€century€it€was€shattered€by€theÐ 5Ð Ðrapid€expansion€of€Islam.€€Ð !¼ ÐÌà  àAll€this€had€the€effect€of€isolating€western€Europe€from€the€sophisticated€urban€culture€of€theÐ ù ” ÐByzantines,€making€it€into€an€economic€backwater.€€At€the€same€time€the€disappearance€of€effectiveÐ å!€  Ðcentral€government€gave€rise€to€the€local€particularism€of€feudalism€and€Ô_ÔmanorialismÔ_Ô.€€In€Spain€mostÐ Ñ"l! Ðof€the€Christian€kingdoms€were€swallowed€by€Muslim€conquerors,€giving€it€a€distinctively€differentÐ ½#X" Ðculture.€Ð ©$D # ÐÌà  àFeudalism€refers€to€a€system€of€rule€in€which€a€lord€got€military€support€and€localÐ &"% Ðadministration€by€giving€his€followers€(vassals)€productive€property€known€as€fiefs.€€Fiefs,€usuallyÐ m'#& Ðland€complete€with€peasants,€were€expected€to€provide€the€vassal€with€enough€income€to€make€itÐ Y(ô#' Ðpossible€for€him€to€arm€himself€and€follow€his€lord€in€war.€€This€system€did€not€provide€forÐ E)à$( Ðcentralized€government.€€Instead€the€lord€of€each€fief€(the€landlord)€became€the€ruler€of€the€fief,Ð 1*Ì%) Ðholding€courts,€punishing€offenders,€collecting€fines,€and€even€hanging€the€people€who€lived€there.€Ð +¸&* ÐHe€managed€the€fief€(often€a€large€farm€or€manor,€hence€Ô_ÔmanorialismÔ_Ô)€in€order€the€maximize€hisÐ  ,¤'+ Ðincome€in€order€to€support€himself€as€a€knight,€and€to€pay€the€various€dues,€fines,€and€taxes€€his€lordÐ e Ðrequired€of€him.€€Ð Qì ÐÌà  àBy€the€time€the€invasions€ended,€in€the€late€10th€century,€the€lord/vassal€relationship€wasÐ )Ä Ðcommon,€in€one€form€or€another,€all€over€western€Europe.€€With€the€coming€of€a€greater€peace€theÐ ° Ðfeudal€lords€began€to€consolidate€their€power,€leading€to€forms€of€feudal€government€in€whichÐ  œ Ðpyramids€of€authority€ran€from€a€ruler€at€the€top€down€through€the€various€levels€of€local€authority,Ð í ˆ Ðdivided€into€ever€smaller€units.€€Nonetheless,€almost€all€government€was€local€government.€Ð Ù t ÐÌà  àIn€spite€of€the€theory€of€the€church€universal,€the€Catholic€Church€was€also€localized.€€TheÐ ± L  Ðunion€of€church€and€state€under€the€Ô_ÔCarolingiansÔ_Ô€had€meant€that€the€church€was€controlled€by€theÐ  8  Ðstate€in€most€places.€€Under€the€Ô_ÔOttonianÔ_Ô€emperors€of€the€Holy€Roman€Empire€even€the€bishops€wereÐ ‰$  Ðchosen€by€the€emperors,€and€churches€became€the€private€possessions€of€secular€lords,€who€selectedÐ u  Ðthe€priests€just€as€they€chose€their€vassals.€€This€led€to€a€serious€decline€in€ecclesiastical€discipline,Ð aü  Ðcreating€a€spiritual€crisis.€€In€turn,€this€crisis€led€to€the€creation€of€new€monastic€institutions€and€theÐ Mè  Ðassertion€of€papal€supremacy€in€the€face€of€the€rapacity€of€local€rulers,€who€sought€to€take€propertyÐ 9Ô  Ðfrom€the€church€and€control€appointments€to€ecclesiastical€positions.€The€most€Ô_ÔnoteableÔ_Ô€of€theseÐ %À Ðreassertions€of€ecclesiastical€independence€came€with€the€founding€of€a€new€Benedictine€monasteryÐ ¬ Ðat€Ô_ÔClunyÔ_Ô€in€France.€There,€the€charter€specifically€gave€control€of€the€house€to€St.€Peter€and,€byÐ ý˜ Ðextension,€his€Vicar€on€Earth,€the€Pope.Ð é„ ÐÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔÌ20.€Ô_ÔCluniacÔ_Ô€charters:€Foundation€charter€of€the€orderÐ Á\ ÐÌCharters€of€the€Ô_ÔGrossiÔ_Ô€FamilyÔ#†XSëXXXSë§Ç#ÔÐ ™4 Ðà  àBy€1050€Europe€was€on€the€verge€of€a€great€cultural€leap€forward.€€The€first€feudal€age€ofÐ …  Ðinvasion€and€confusion€was€giving€way€to€the€second€feudal€age€that€is€usually€called€the€HighÐ q  ÐMiddle€Ages.€Ð ]ø ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ  ,¤'+ Їà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIIÐ e ÐÌà  à€EXPANSION€AND€STABILIZATION:€POLITICS€AND€ECONOMICS,€1000„1200Ð =Ø ÐÌÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€149„288.Ð  œ ÐÌGeary,€òòReadingsóó€€Ô_ÔFulbertÔ_Ô€of€Chartres;€Hugh€of€Ô_ÔLusignanÔ_Ô;€4€Accounts€of€Crusades;€Ô_ÔLiudprandÔ_Ô€ofÐ Ù t ÐÔ_ÔCremonaÔ_Ô;€Investiture€Controversy;€Concordat€of€Worms;€Otto€of€Ô_ÔFreisingÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔJoinvilleÔ_Ô;€DomesdayÐ Å ` ÐBook;€Magna€Carta;€Richard€Ô_ÔfitzÔ_Ô€Nigel.Ð ± L  ÐÌÌà  àEssay€on€the€Feudal€contracts€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00,€July€1Ð u  ÐÌà  àEssay€on€the€Investiture€Controversy€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00,€July€8.Ð Mè  Ðà  àÌÌEssay€Questions:Ð ¬ Ðà  à1.€€Feudal€ContractÐ ý˜ Ðà  à€€à0 ` àThe€government€of€much€of€western€Europe€in€the€high€Middle€Ages€was€conductedÐ é„ Ðthrough€feudal€Ô_Ôcontracts.UsingÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔFulbertÔ_Ô€of€Chartres,€Hugh€of€Ô_ÔLusignonÔ_Ô,€Otto€ofÐ Õp ÐÔ_ÔFriesingÔ_Ô,€the€Viscount€of€Ô_ÔCarcasonneÔ_Ôððs€charter,€Ô_ÔDomsdayÔ_Ô€Book€and€the€Magna€CartaÐ Á\ Ðexplain€the€obligations€of€lords€and€the€obligations€of€vassals.ЭH` (#` (# Ðà  àÌà  à2.€€Investiture€ControversyÐ …  Ðà  àà0 ` àThis€period€is€marked€by€the€struggle€between€the€papacy€and€the€secular€monarchsÐ q  Ðfor€control€over€the€Church.€€Using€Ô_ÔLiudprandÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔCremonaÔ_Ô,€the€documents€on€theÐ ]ø ÐInvestiture€Controversy,€the€Concordat€of€Worms€and€Holmes,€define€the€issuesÐ Iä Ðinvolved€and€trace€the€struggle€up€to€September€1122.Ð5Ð` (#` (# ÐÌà  àÌà  àÌÌÌÌVocabulary:Ð ©$D # Ðà  àfealtyà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àÔ_ÔHildebrandÔ_ÔÐ •%0!$ Ðà  àhomageà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àHenry€IVÐ &"% Ðà  àvassalà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àConcordat€of€WormsÐ m'#& Ðà  àcommunes€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€à h àà À àInvestiture€ControversyÐ Y(ô#' Ðà  àfiefà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àwritsÐ E)à$( Ðà  àGregorian€reformsà  àà h àà À àMagna€CartaÐ 1*Ì%) Ðà  àÔ_ÔGratianÔ_Ô€of€Bolognaà  àà h àà À à3€field€systemÐ +¸&* ÐÐ  ,¤'+ ЇEssay€#3:€€The€Investiture€ControversyÐ e ÐÌà  àWrite€an€essay€answering€the€following€questions€using€Ô_ÔLiudprandÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔCremonaÔ_Ô,€theÐ =Ø ÐInvestiture€Controversy€documents,€and€the€Concordat€of€Worms.Ð )Ä ÐÌà  à1.€à0 ` àAccording€to€Ô_ÔLiudprandÔ_Ô€why€did€the€emperors€begin€controlling€the€choice€of€popes?Ð œ` (#` (# ÐÌà  à2.€à0 ` àWhat€did€Gregory€VII€want€Henry€IV€to€do€in€relation€to€the€Church?€€Why€was€à @Ž" à€€€€Ð Ù t ÐHenry€reluctant€to€grant€what€he€demanded?ÐÅ `` (#` (# ÐÌà  à3.€€à0 ` àWhat€disciplinary€measures€did€Gregory€VII€take€against€Henry?Ð 8 ` (#` (# Ѐ€Ð ‰$  Ðà  à4.€€à0 ` àHow€did€Henry€respond€to€his€excommunication?Ðu ` (#` (# ÐÌà  à5.€€à0 ` àWhat€does€the€action€of€the€German€bishops€at€the€Ô_ÔSynodofÔ_Ô€Worms€teach€us€aboutÐ Mè  Ðthe€legal€assumptions€about€the€place€of€the€Church€in€society€in€the€11th€century?Ð9Ô ` (#` (# ÐÌà  à6.à0 ` àThe€Concordat€of€Worms€€of€1122€summarizes€the€issues€in€contention€between€theÐ ¬ Ðpapacy€and€the€Empire€and€resolves€them.€€How?Ðý˜` (#` (# ÐÌà  àÌÌÌÌEssay€#4Ð …  Ðà  àCreate€and€answer€a€question€that€makes€use€of€the€information€on€feudal€contracts€in€theÐ q  ÐòòMedieval€Ô_ÔSourcebookÔ_Ôóó€Ô_ÔFulbertÔ_Ô€of€Chartres,€Hugh€of€Ô_ÔLusignanÔ_Ô,€and€Ô_ÔGalbertÔ_Ô€of€Bruges.€€The€questionÐ ]ø Ðyou€create€should€allow€you€to€use€these€terms:€€fealty,€homage,€vassal,€fief.Ð Iä Ðà  àÌÐ  !¼ ÐÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIIÐ Qì ÐÌà  àThe€period€just€after€the€millennium€saw€Europe€move€into€a€new€phase€of€its€history.€€WithÐ )Ä Ðthe€return€of€relative€peace€and€security€after€the€end€of€the€invasions€the€economy€began€to€expand.€Ð ° ÐThe€Agricultural€revolution€fed€the€growing€cities€that€employed€more€and€more€people.€€LongÐ  œ Ðdistance€trade€reappeared,€too,€and€the€cities€began€to€emerge€as€potent€political€forces.€€The€papacy,Ð í ˆ Ðthanks€to€the€Gregorian€reforms,€became€increasingly€centralized€and€bureaucratized,€able€to€makeÐ Ù t Ðits€will€felt€across€Europe.€€This€made€it€a€potent€political€force,€competing€with€the€emerging€feudalÐ Å ` Ðmonarchies€which€were€learning€the€lessons€of€centralization€from€the€Church.€€The€kings,€when€theyÐ ± L  Ðcould,€arrogated€more€power€to€themselves,€wresting€it€from€the€feudal€lords.€€Throughout€this€eraÐ  8  ÐChurch€and€rulers€shared€a€sense€of€Christendom's€divine€mission,€launching€crusade€after€crusadeÐ ‰$  Ðagainst€those€who€defied€their€God€and€His€servants.€Ð u  ÐÌà  àThe€efforts€made€to€defeat€the€Vikings,€Magyars,€and€Muslims€had€laid€the€groundwork€forÐ Mè  Ðthe€political€changes,€but€without€the€agricultural€revolution€of€the€10th„12th€centuries€the€expansionÐ 9Ô  Ðwould€have€been€very€difficult.€€The€reasons€for€this€change€are€political,€demographic,€andÐ %À Ðtechnological.€Ð ¬ ÐÌà  àIn€a€world€in€which€all€wealth€was€in€land€the€military€needs€of€the€aristocracy€led€them€toÐ é„ Ðseek€new€ways€to€profit€from€the€land.€€The€result€was€that€in€the€11th€and€12th€centuries€theÐ Õp Ðpeasantry€came€to€be€subjugated€and€Ô_ÔlandholdingsÔ_Ô€consolidated€into€manors€that€could€be€managedÐ Á\ Ðmore€efficiently.€€At€the€same€time,€lords,€like€Abbot€Ô_ÔSugerÔ_Ô€of€St.€Denis,€turned€to€new€farmingÐ ­H Ðmethods€in€order€to€increase€production.€€Because€of€the€new€technologies€of€the€horse€collar,€horseÐ ™4 Ðshoe,€and€Ô_ÔmouldboardÔ_Ô€plow€it€was€possible€to€replace€the€slow€ox€teams€the€peasants€had€been€usingÐ …  Ðwith€faster€horses,€increasing€the€output€per€man€hour.€€In€some€areas€they€also€shifted€from€the€twoÐ q  Ðfield€to€the€three€field€system€of€production,€a€change€which,€because€of€the€crop€rotation€itÐ ]ø Ðintroduced,€improved€yields€and€gave€peasants€a€better€diet.€€Ð Iä ÐÌà  àThese€developments€were€accompanied€by€a€sharp€rise€in€the€population.€€In€areas€in€whichÐ !¼ Ðthere€was€an€inadequate€food€supply€this€created€inflation,€which€in€turn€destabilized€and€weakenedÐ  ¨ Ðlocal€rulers.€€In€others,€especially€where€there€was€surplus€land€available,€the€increasing€populationÐ ù ” Ðled€to€a€robust€economic€expansion.€€Draining€swamps,€clearing€forests,€and€developing€new€cropsÐ å!€  Ðand€methods€were€signs€of€this,€as€was€the€great€eastward€migration.€€The€forests€of€central€EuropeÐ Ñ"l! Ðbegan€to€fall€to€the€axes€of€families€who€had€been€attracted€by€land€and€freedom€from€the€oppressionÐ ½#X" Ðof€the€western€manors.€Ð ©$D # ÐÌà  àWith€the€growth€of€population€came€the€growth€of€towns.€€They€made€their€Ô_ÔlivingsÔ_Ô€fromÐ &"% Ðmanufactures€for€the€local€markets,€as€shrines,€as€administrative€centers,€and€by€supplying€necessaryÐ m'#& Ðservices.€€Lords€frequently€encouraged€their€towns€to€grow€in€order€to€profit€from€the€market€tollsÐ Y(ô#' Ðthey€produced.€€If€the€lord€did€not€grant€the€town€the€right€of€self€government€the€townspeopleÐ E)à$( Ðsometimes€seized€it,€as€the€frequent€revolts€of€the€communes€indicate.€€These€towns,€with€theirÐ 1*Ì%) Ðwealth€and€concentration€of€people,€quickly€became€political€forces.€Ð +¸&* ÐÐ  ,¤'+ Ðà  àBy€the€12th€century€the€towns€had€become€centers€of€long€distance€trade,€brokering€goodsÐ e Ðbetween€the€local€communities€and€the€manufacturing€centers€of€Italy€and€the€East.€€Luxuries,€suchÐ Qì Ðas€spices,€came€from€the€Orient;€wool€came€out€of€England€to€be€woven€in€Flanders€and€Italy;€slavesÐ =Ø Ðmoved€from€central€Europe€to€Constantinople€and€Muslim€Spain;€and,€after€the€crusades€began,€aÐ )Ä Ðsteady€traffic€of€people€and€supplies€flowed€between€Italy€and€the€Ô_ÔLevantÔ_Ô.€Ð ° ÐÌà  àMany€lords€quickly€understood€that€money€could€be€made€off€of€trade.€€Some€simply€chargedÐ í ˆ Ðtolls€or,€as€frequently€happened,€stole€the€goods€of€the€merchants€who€traveled€through€their€lands.€Ð Ù t ÐOthers,€however,€encouraged€their€towns€to€become€the€centers€of€trade.€€The€counts€of€ChampagneÐ Å ` Ðin€France€took€advantage€of€their€easy€access€to€river€transport,€beginning€the€Champagne€fairs€intÐ ± L  Ðeh€12th€century.€€Regularly€scheduled€fairs€brought€merchants€from€all€over€Europe€to€theseÐ  8  Ðwholesale€markets€and€the€exchange€scale€developed€at€Troyes€became€the€standard€for€valuingÐ ‰$  Ðcurrency€everywhere.€Ð u  Ðà  àAs€the€towns€grew€a€tension€was€growing€between€secular€and€ecclesiastical€rulers.€€In€theÐ aü  Ðearly€Middle€Ages€kings€had€seen€their€functions€in€sacral€terms.€€Believing€themselves€called€byÐ Mè  ÐGod€they€saw€their€role€as€protecting€the€oppressed€and€helpless€and€spreading€Christianity.€Ð 9Ô  ÐHowever,€spreading€the€gospel€and€establishing€political€control€became€closely€linked,€especiallyÐ %À Ðin€the€German€lands€where€the€conversion€and€subjugation€of€the€Slavs€went€hand€in€hand,€andÐ ¬ Ðwhere€the€Ô_ÔOttonianÔ_Ô€rulers€made€it€a€policy€to€control€the€church€in€order€to€counterbalance€theÐ ý˜ Ðpowerful€nobles.€€This€had€the€effect€of€spreading€the€church€but€undermining€its€spiritual€discipline.€Ð é„ ÐThe€Ô_ÔOttonianumÔ_Ô,€in€which€the€pope€recognized€the€Holy€Roman€Emperor€as€superior€in€1002,€wasÐ Õp Ða€radical€and€shortlived€reflection€of€this€tendency.€Ð Á\ ÐÌ€à  àOf€much€greater€importance€was€the€establishment€of€lay€investiture€as€a€royal€prerogative.€Ð ™4 ÐThe€right€to€make€a€bishop€by€"investing"€him€with€his€ring€(secular€authority)€and€staffÐ …  Ð(ecclesiastical€authority),€it€gave€secular€rulers€almost€total€control€over€the€church€in€their€lands.€Ð q  ÐThe€emperors€extended€it€so€far€that€form€the€late€10th€until€the€mid„11th€centuries€they€appointedÐ ]ø Ðthe€popes.€Ð Iä ÐÌà  àBy€the€mid„11th€century,€however,€Europe€was€in€the€midst€of€a€great€religious€revival€andÐ !¼ Ðthe€devout€were€increasingly€unhappy€about€the€effect€lay€control€had€on€the€church.€€This€upsurgeÐ  ¨ Ðin€demands€for€reform€is€loosely€referred€to€as€the€"Gregorian€Reforms,"€though€it€began€before€andÐ ù ” Ðwent€on€long€after€Gregory€VII€was€pope.€Ð å!€  ÐÌà  àAt€its€core€was€a€new€spirituality,€the€product€of€the€changing€times.€€Urban€growth,Ð ½#X" Ðeducational€expansion,€declining€discipline,€economic€tension,€and€the€flood€of€east€Europeans€intoÐ ©$D # Ðthe€church€had€prompted€people€to€see€their€faith€in€a€new€light.€€No€longer€content€with€a€sacralÐ •%0!$ Ðclergy€who€worked€God's€magic€people€sought€to€live€Christian€lives€in€imitation€of€Christ.€€ThisÐ &"% Ðemphasis€on€New€Testament€lifestyles€is€most€obvious€in€the€boom€of€new€monastic€orders€in€theÐ m'#& Ð11th€and€12th€centuries.€€Some€were€conservative,€like€the€Cistercians€who€demanded€a€return€to€theÐ Y(ô#' ÐòòÔ_ÔprimitivaÔ_Ô€formaóó€(primitive€form)€of€Benedictine€monasticism.€€Others€took€their€imitation€of€ChristÐ E)à$( Ðin€the€direction€of€social€activism,€such€as€the€Augustinian€canons.€€For€others€service€to€God€meantÐ 1*Ì%) Ðgoing€on€Crusade„„the€popular€response€to€the€first€Crusade€in€1095€tells€us€just€how€devout€theseÐ +¸&* Ðpeople€were„„and€many€slipped€over€into€heresy.€Ð  ,¤'+ Їà  àUltimately,€however,€all€these€movements€demanded€a€reformed€Church.€€The€only€way€itÐ e Ðcould€be€obtained€was€to€free€it€from€secular€control,€and€so,€from€the€mid„11th€century€on,Ð Qì Ðecclesiastical€and€secular€authorities€came€into€conflict,€a€battle€that€would€dominate€EuropeanÐ =Ø Ðpolitics€for€several€hundred€years.€€The€aim€of€the€Gregorian€reformers€was€to€create€a€church€whichÐ )Ä Ðcould€be€a€model€of€piety.€€In€order€to€do€this€they€needed€to€create€a€disciplined€clergy,€and€so€theyÐ ° Ðneeded€strong€papal€leadership€free€of€secular€control.€€In€the€1050s€they€began€to€get€this,Ð  œ Ðestablishing€that€popes€could€only€be€elected€by€what€became€the€College€of€Cardinals.€€After€thatÐ í ˆ Ðvictory€they€sought€to€take€control€of€all€episcopal€elections.€€When€Gregory€VII€became€pope€inÐ Ù t Ð1074€he€ordered€Henry€IV€of€the€Holy€Roman€Empire€to€desist€excommunication,€deposition,€andÐ Å ` Ðfrom€investing€bishops.€€Henry€refused,€and€the€result€was€the€dramatic€submission€of€Henry,€whoÐ ± L  Ðwas€faced€with€rebellion€at€home,€at€Canossa€in€1077.€€The€outcome€of€this€episode,€the€"investitureÐ  8  Ðcontroversy,"€was€to€establish€clearly€that€the€pope€was€superior€to€any€secular€ruler€and€that€popesÐ ‰$  Ðhad€the€right€to€deprive€kings€of€their€kingdoms.€Of€course€without€an€army€the€pope€could€notÐ u  Ðenforce€his€orders,€but€it€is€indicative€of€the€psychological€power€they€had,€as€well€as€the€willingnessÐ aü  Ðof€others€to€attack€a€weak€king,€that€for€the€next€225€years€papal€supremacy€was€not€effectivelyÐ Mè  Ðchallenged.€€The€church€had€become€a€powerful€and€distinct€player€in€all€the€kingdoms,€one€withÐ 9Ô  Ðwhich€a€king€had€to€reckon€if€he€was€successfully€to€control€his€lands.€Ð %À ÐÌà  àOne€of€the€ways€in€which€the€church€succeeded€in€making€its€presence€felt€throughout€EuropeÐ ý˜ Ðwas€by€the€creation€of€an€effective€bureaucracy.€€Benefitting€from€the€intellectuals€of€the€"12thÐ é„ ÐCentury€Renaissance,"€€it€developed€and€began€to€enforce€the€code€of€church€law,€the€canon€law,€atÐ Õp Ðall€levels€of€society.€€But€always€the€papal€court€was€the€ultimate€place€of€appeal.€€As€theÐ Á\ Ðbureaucratization€created€an€inflationary€spiral€of€church€government€it€became€more€and€moreÐ ­H Ðinvisible€and€effective.€€The€lawyer€popes€of€the€12th€and€13th€centuries€saw€to€it.€€Quickly,€secularÐ ™4 Ðrulers€realized€that€they,€too,€could€strengthen€their€control€and€improve€their€incomes€by€betterÐ …  Ðmanagement€and€the€application€of€systematic€law.€Ð q  ÐÌà  àAny€king€who€wished€to€call€his€throne€his€own€was€faced,€by€the€12th€century,€with€threeÐ Iä Ðpowers€that€had€to€be€either€controlled€or€neutralized:€€the€feudal€lords,€the€church,€and€the€towns.Ð 5Ð ÐThe€political€history€of€this€period€turns€around€their€attempts€to€bring€these€powers€under€theirÐ !¼ Ðcontrol.€€In€western€Europe€the€rulers€of€England,€France,€and€Spain€would€ultimately€succeed.€€InÐ  ¨ Ðcentral€Europe€they€did€not.€€There€the€nobles€and€the€church€succeeded€in€undermining€attempts€toÐ ù ” Ðcontrol€them,€with€the€result€that€political€Ô_ÔparticularlismÔ_Ô€dominated.€€In€Eastern€Europe€thereÐ å!€  Ðemerged€in€Hungary€and€Bohemia€strong€kingdoms,€but€Poland€dissolved€into€civil€war€in€the€mid„Ð Ñ"l! Ð12th€century.€€Factionalism€predominated€in€Scandinavia,€too,€with€only€Denmark€establishing€aÐ ½#X" Ðpowerful€monarchy.€Ð ©$D # ÐÌà  àThose€rulers€who€succeeded€in€establishing€some€vestige€of€central€control€tended€to€beÐ &"% Ðhelped€by€war,€not€policy.€€In€England,€France,€Hungary,€and€Spain€conflict€with€their€neighborsÐ m'#& Ðmade€it€imperative€that€the€king€be€able€to€call€upon€the€resources€of€his€nation.€€The€commonÐ Y(ô#' Ðenemy,€therefore,€was€useful.€€So,€too,€was€law€which€allowed€the€king€to€extend€his€control€at€theÐ E)à$( Ðexpense€of€the€feudal€lords,€slowing€depriving€them€of€their€independence.€€In€England,€whichÐ 1*Ì%) Ðstarted€from€the€base€of€the€sophisticated€Anglo„Saxon€government,€the€12th€century€saw€increasingÐ +¸&* Ðroyal€control.€€William€the€Conqueror's€Doomsday€Book€of€1086€marks€the€beginning€of€the€process,Ð  ,¤'+ Ðsince€it€is€a€careful€account€of€all€the€lands€and€people€in€the€kingdom€that€owed€the€king€revenue.€Ð e ÐBy€the€time€of€Henry€I€in€the€1130s,€tax€records€were€being€kept€by€the€king's€Exchequer,€giving€theÐ Qì Ðmonarchy€some€idea€of€income,€expenditure,€and€the€behavior€of€the€king's€sheriffs.€€This€processÐ =Ø Ðof€centralization€was€disrupted€by€the€civil€war€between€Stephen€and€Matilda€over€who€would€inheritÐ )Ä ÐHenry€I's€throne,€a€period€in€which€the€local€magnates,€left€unchecked€by€royal€control,€oftenÐ ° Ðterrorized€the€country.€€When€the€wars€ended€with€Henry€II's€accession€he€began€to€suppress€the€lordsÐ  œ Ðusing€legal€weapons,€and€a€mailed€fist.€€His€legal€writs,€especially€òòÔ_ÔnovelleÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔdeseissinÔ_Ôóó,€are€theÐ í ˆ Ðbeginning€of€common€law€in€England„„"common"€because€it€was€the€king's€law€and€applied€to€all,Ð Ù t Ðunlike€the€local€law€of€the€feudal€lords.€€These€administrative€advances€in€England€made€it€possibleÐ Å ` Ðfor€the€Angevin€kings€to€finance€their€wards€in€France€and€their€crusades„„with€the€predictable€resultÐ ± L  Ðthat€by€the€early€13th€century€Richard€I€had€created€inflation€and€unrest,€which€weakened€theÐ  8  Ðmonarchy,€as€his€brother€John€learned€when€he€was€forced€to€sign€the€Magna€Carta€in€1215.€Ð ‰$  ÐÌà  àIn€general€the€12th€century€saw€the€emergence€of€more€secular,€utilitarian€concepts€of€ruleÐ aü  Ðthat€evaluated€the€ruler€in€terms€of€the€benefits€he€or€she€brought€to€the€people.€€In€part€this€was€theÐ Mè  Ðresult€of€the€study€of€history€by€the€scholars€of€the€12th€Century€Renaissance,€but€it€was€also€a€resultÐ 9Ô  Ðof€the€blows€which€had€been€dealt€to€the€older€theocratic€view€in€the€Investiture€Controversy.€€It€wasÐ %À Ðalso€a€reflection€of€the€pragmatic€way€rulers€had€regularized€their€rule,€defining€duties€andÐ ¬ Ðobligations€more€clearly€and,€in€the€process€recognizing€the€rights€of€their€subjects.€€Ironically,€thisÐ ý˜ Ðprocess€of€regularization€also€tied€the€king's€hands€because€now€the€lords€could,€as€they€did€in€MagnaÐ é„ ÐCarta,€insist€that€the€king€recognize€his€own€responsibilities€or€face€rebellion.€Ð Õp ÐÌà  àAgainst€this€background€of€economic€growth,€ecclesiastical€aggrandizement,€and€increasingÐ ­H Ðpolitical€stability€we€can€better€understand€the€cultural€revival€that€swept€Europe€between€about€1050Ð ™4 Ðand€1250.€Ð …  ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ  ,¤'+ ЇÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIIIÐ Qì ÐÌà  àà ` àà ¸ à€€€à0  àThe€Later€Middle€AgesÐ)Ä(#(# ÐÌReadings:Ð  œ Ðà  àReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€321„365Ð í ˆ ÐÌGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Canons€of€4th€Ô_ÔLateranÔ_Ô€Council;€Mendicants,€Jacques€Ô_ÔFournierÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€Padua;Ð Å ` ÐCharles€IV,€òòAutobiographyóó;€Golden€Bull;€òòÔ_ÔEnquetsÔ_Ôóó;€Ô_ÔFroissartÔ_Ô;€royal€courts;€medieval€village€plan;Ð ± L  ÐÔ_ÔCastatoÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔDatiÔ_Ô.Ð  8  ÐÌà0  à1.€Essay€on€òòÔ_ÔQuodÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔomnesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔtangitÔ_Ô,óó€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€July€22,€Feast€of€StÐ u  ÐMary€MagdaleneÐaü (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.€Essay€on€the€decline€of€papal€power€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€July€15,€St.Ð 9Ô  ÐÔ_ÔSwithinÔ_Ôððs€DayÐ%À(#(# Ðà  àÌÌ1.€à0  àThe€14th€century€was€the€great€age€of€representative€government€thanks€to€the€impasseÐ é„ Ðbetween€centralizing€monarchs€and€the€power€of€the€feudal€nobility.€Using€the€Golden€Bull,Ð Õp Ðthe€Magna€Carta,€Ô_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€Padua,€the€Ô_ÔHuntingtonshireÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔeyreÔ_Ô,€and€the€òòÔ_ÔenquetsÔ_Ôóó€of€Louis€IXÐ Á\ Ðdemonstrate€what€was€meant€by€the€axiom€òòÔ_ÔQuodÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔomnesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔtangitÔ_Ô€ab€omnibus€Ô_ÔapprobaturÔ_Ôóó€[whatÐ ­H Ðtouches€all€must€be€approved€by€all],€defining€who€was€meant€by€"all."€Ð™4(#(# ÐÌÌ2.€€à0  àThe€14th€century€saw€the€decline€of€papal€power€that€led€to€the€Council€of€Constance€inÐ ]ø Ð1414.€€The€papacy€asserted€its€independence€of€all€secular€powers,€while€writers€likeÐ Iä ÐÔ_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€€Padua€helped€lead€the€attack€on€the€papacy€by€the€secular€powers.€SummarizeÐ 5Ð Ðthe€€arguments€for€and€against€the€supremacy€of€secular€powers€over€the€Church.Ð!¼(#(# ÐÌVocabulary:Ð ù ” ÐÌà  àà ` àGreat€Schismà  àà h àà À àAvignonÐ Ñ"l! Ðà  àà ` à100€Years'€War€€€€€€€€à h à€€€€€€€€€€€€St.€LouisÐ ½#X" Ðà  àà ` àÔ_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€VIIIà  àà h àà À àPhilip€IVÐ ©$D # Ðà  àà ` àInquisitionà  àà h àà À à4th€Ô_ÔLateranÔ_Ô€CouncilÐ •%0!$ Ðà  àà ` àInnocent€III€€€€€€€€€€à h à€€€€€€€€€€Ô_ÔAlbigensiansÔ_ÔÐ &"% Ðà  àà ` àÔ_ÔWaldensiansÔ_Ô€€€€€€€€€€€€€€òòà h àà À àÔ_ÔcastatoÔ_ÔóóÐ m'#& Ðà  àà ` àCouncil€of€Constance€€€€€€€€€€€€Golden€BullÐ Y(ô#' Ðà  àà ` àParliament€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€à h à€€€€€€€€€€€Ô_ÔjaquerieÔ_ÔÐ E)à$( Ѐ€€€€€€€à  àà ` à€€"Ô_ÔQuodÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔomnesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔtangitÔ_Ô€ab€omnibus€Ô_ÔapprobaturÔ_Ô"Ð 1*Ì%) Ðà  àà ` àÌÐ  ,¤'+ ЇÌà  àÌà@……)ìàIVˆÐ =Ø ÐÌà  àThe€economic€expansion,€demographic€explosion,€political€centralization,€church„stateÐ ° Ðtensions,€and€spiritual€enthusiasm€that€marked€the€12th€century€continued€into€the€13th€and€14th,€butÐ  œ Ðthe€society€was€fraught€with€more€and€more€trouble.€Ð í ˆ ÐÌà  àThe€crusading€enthusiasm€had€turned€to€greedy€violence€against€other€Christians€when€theÐ Å ` Ð4th€crusade€sacked€Constantinople€in€1204.€€By€1283€the€Teutonic€knights€had€overrun€Prussia€butÐ ± L  Ðthey€ran€up€against€the€advancing€Ô_ÔMongolsÔ_Ô€who€had€taken€Russia€and€Hungary.€€Jerusalem€wasÐ  8  Ðretaken€by€the€Muslims€in€1244€and€by€1291€all€the€Christian€conquests€in€the€Holy€Land€had€fallen.€Ð ‰$  ÐMeanwhile,€the€Ô_ÔMamlukÔ_Ô€Turks€were€expanding€out€of€Egypt,€defeating€the€Ô_ÔMongolsÔ_Ô€decisively€atÐ u  ÐAin€Ô_ÔJalutÔ_Ô€in€1261€and€threatening€the€Byzantine€Empire.€Ð aü  ÐÌà  àAs€expansion€in€the€East€came€to€an€end€the€powers€of€the€West€were€having€their€ownÐ 9Ô  Ðtroubles.€€The€last€Ô_ÔHohenstaufenÔ_Ô€emperor€of€Germany€was€killed€in€1268,€beginning€an€interregnumÐ %À Ðthat€lasted€until€1273,€when€Rudolf€I,€Habsburg€was€elected.€€He€died€childless€in€1291.€€HisÐ ¬ Ðsuccessor€was€deposed€in€1298;€his€successor€was€murdered€in€1308.€€All€of€this€tremendouslyÐ ý˜ Ðweakened€the€Holy€Roman€Empire.€€This€weakness€was€codified€in€1356€when€the€Golden€BullÐ é„ Ðfixed€the€power€of€the€7€great€electors€to€control€the€emperor.€Ð Õp ÐÌà  àEngland€suffered€similar€troubles.€€The€weak€but€pious€Henry€III€(1207„72)€gave€much€awayÐ ­H Ðto€the€church,€and€his€nobles€eventually€rebelled,€creating€a€council€to€control€him€and€essentiallyÐ ™4 Ðusurping€the€power€of€the€monarchy.€€His€successor,€Edward€I,€was€much€more€successful,€but€inÐ …  Ðhis€reign€the€first€parliament€was€held,€recognition€that€the€king€was€bound€to€seek€the€counsel€ofÐ q  Ðthe€powerful€if€he€was€to€rule.€€Edward€involved€his€country€in€almost€continuous€war€as€he€attackedÐ ]ø Ðthe€Scots,€annexed€Wales,€and€fought€the€French€in€Flanders€and€Aquitaine.€€He€nearly€bankruptedÐ Iä ÐEngland.€€In€1324€the€Hundred€Years'€War€began,€with€horrible€consequences€for€French€people.€€Ð 5Ð ÐÌà  àFrance€in€the€13th€and€14th€centuries€presents€a€picture€of€a€successful€monarchy€as€theÐ  ¨ ÐÔ_ÔCapetianÔ_Ô€dynasty€reached€its€zenith€under€Louis€IX€(1226„70).€€To€get€to€that€pinnacle,€however,Ð ù ” Ðmany€people€had€to€die.€€At€the€beginning€of€his€reign€Louis€was€King€of€France,€but€that€onlyÐ å!€  Ðincluded€northern€France.€€His€Ô_ÔAlbigensianÔ_Ô€Crusade€against€the€heretical€Ô_ÔCatharsÔ_Ô€in€the€Ô_ÔLanguedocÔ_ÔÐ Ñ"l! Ðof€southern€France,€fought€with€incredible€ferocity,€extinguished€many€of€the€noble€houses€there€andÐ ½#X" Ðgave€him€control€all€the€way€to€the€Mediterranean.€€Ð ©$D # ÐÌà  àLouis'€piety,€best€expressed€in€that€jewel€of€gothic€architecture€the€St.€Ô_ÔChapelleÔ_Ô€built€to€houseÐ &"% Ðthe€Crown€of€Thorns,€combined€with€his€concern€for€justice€and€his€willingness€to€kill€heretics,Ð m'#& Ðearned€his€canonization€in€1297.€€St.€Louis€was€succeeded€by€Philip€III,€who€continued€his€policyÐ Y(ô#' Ðof€good€relations€with€the€papacy.€€Under€Philip€IV€"The€Fair,"€however,€relations€with€PopeÐ E)à$( ÐÔ_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€VIII€became€very€stormy€as€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€tried€to€exert€control€over€the€kings€as€Gregory€VIIÐ 1*Ì%) Ðhad.€€Philips's€Ô_ÔkidnappingÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€in€1303€was€followed€by€the€removal€of€the€papacy€toÐ +¸&* ÐAvignon,€changing€the€pope's€relations€with€the€secular€rulers€drastically.€€After€Philip€came€theÐ  ,¤'+ ÐHundred€Years'€War€which,€in€all€the€acts€but€the€last,€was€disastrous€for€the€French€monarchy€andÐ e Ðhideous€for€its€subjects.Ð Qì ÐÌÌà  àItaly€in€this€era€was€profoundly€turbulent.€€The€northern€Italian€cities€not€directly€controlledÐ ° Ðby€the€papacy€or€Venice€maintained€their€independence€by€playing€the€Holy€Roman€Emperor€againstÐ  œ Ðthe€Papacy.€€The€Ô_ÔGuelphsÔ_Ô€sided€with€the€papacy€while€the€Ô_ÔGhibellinesÔ_Ô€sided€with€the€empire,€andÐ í ˆ Ðevery€city€had€factions€of€both€within€its€walls.€€The€wars€between€the€two€parties€ended€in€1266Ð Ù t Ðwhen€the€battle€of€Ô_ÔBenevenutoÔ_Ô€ended€imperial€activity€in€Italy.€€Nonetheless,€internal€Italian€disputesÐ Å ` Ðcontinued,€with€frequent€communal€revolutions€like€the€one€that€expelled€Dante€from€Florence.€€InÐ ± L  Ðthe€midst€of€this€chaos€the€Italian€communes€enjoyed€an€economic€and€cultural€boom€that€producedÐ  8  Ðthe€Italian€Renaissance€in€the€early€14th€century.€Ð ‰$  ÐÌà  àMuch€of€the€trouble€in€Italy€can€be€laid€at€the€feet€of€the€papacy,€which€was€constantlyÐ aü  Ðstruggling€to€prevent€the€empire€from€achieving€hegemony€over€the€peninsula.€€In€pursuing€thisÐ Mè  Ðpolicy€Charles€of€Anjou€was€invited€into€Sicily€by€the€pope.€€His€rule€resulted€in€the€bloody€revoltÐ 9Ô  Ðknown€as€the€Sicilian€Vespers€in€1282€and€the€invitation€by€the€islanders€to€Peter€III€of€Aragon€toÐ %À Ðintervene.€€For€the€next€250€years€southern€Italy€would€be€a€football€between€French€and€SpanishÐ ¬ Ðrulers.€€The€result€was€a€devastation€that€has€left€the€Mezzo„Ô_ÔgiornoÔ_Ô€poverty€stricken€to€this€day.€Ð ý˜ ÐÌà  àAt€the€beginning€of€the€13th€century€the€papacy,€in€the€person€of€Innocent€III€(1160„1216),Ð Õp Ðhad€reached€the€peak€of€its€power.€€Innocent,€a€lawyer€by€training€and€inclination,€forced€King€JohnÐ Á\ Ðof€England€to€surrender€to€him€in€a€dispute€over€who€had€the€right€to€choose€the€archbishop€ofÐ ­H ÐCanterbury.€€He€called€the€4th€Ô_ÔLateranÔ_Ô€Council,€too,€which€defined€the€7€sacraments€of€the€ChurchÐ ™4 Ðas€dogma€and€ordered€the€Jews€into€the€ghettos.€€The€administrative€reforms€and€the€extension€ofÐ …  Ðpapal€control€over€the€Church€were,€however,€put€to€a€severe€test.€€In€order€to€prove€their€claims€toÐ q  Ðbe€superior€to€kings€the€popes€had€to€have€military€support€to€back€up€their€sanctions.€€ConsequentlyÐ ]ø Ðthey€spent€vast€amounts€on€mercenaries€and€they€made€deals€with€rulers,€especially€the€French.€€TheyÐ Iä Ðalso€began€to€use€the€crusade€as€a€way€to€get€their€will€enforced€on€disobedient€Christians.€€TheÐ 5Ð Ðresulting€inflation€and€political€polarization€hurt€them€financially€and€in€reputation.€Ð !¼ ÐÌà  àBy€the€late€13th€century€the€papacy's€desire€to€tax€the€clergy€was€at€cross€purposes€with€many€Ð ù ” Ðmonarchs,€who€resented€the€popes'€claim€to€tax€their€countries.€€Between€1294€and€1303€a€virulentÐ å!€  Ðseries€of€quarrels€broke€out€between€pope€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€VIII€and€the€kings€over€the€independence€of€theÐ Ñ"l! Ðchurch.€€A€propaganda€war€was€waged.€€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€issued€his€famous€bulls€òòÔ_ÔUnamÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔSanctamÔ_Ôóó€andÐ ½#X" ÐòòÔ_ÔClericosÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔlaicosÔ_Ôóó,€denying€the€secular€ruler€any€right€to€tax€or€control€the€church.€€Philip's€intellectualsÐ ©$D # Ðdenied€the€pope's€right€to€tax,€to€investigate€heresy,€and€to€establish€doctrinal€orthodoxy.€€Finally,Ð •%0!$ Ðin€1303,€Philip€Ô_ÔkidnappedÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBonifaceÔ_Ô€at€Ô_ÔAnagniÔ_Ô€in€Italy.€€He€was€freed€24€hours€later,€but€died€almostÐ &"% Ðimmediately.€€When€Clement€V,€a€French€candidate€was€elected€pope€in€1305€he€proceeded€to€moveÐ m'#& Ðthe€papacy€to€Avignon€in€France,€where€it€remained€until€1377.€€The€authority€and€stature€of€theÐ Y(ô#' Ðpapacy€had€been€gravely€threatened€by€this€crisis€and€would€continue€to€decline€as€it€became€moreÐ E)à$( Ðand€more€corrupt€and€political,€even€as€its€efficiency€increased.€Ð 1*Ì%) ÐÌÐ  ,¤'+ Ðà  àThe€increasing€secularization€of€the€papacy€in€the€14th€century€put€it€at€odds€with€the€spiritualÐ e Ðintensity€of€a€movement€which€had,€in€the€13th€century,€been€one€of€its€mainstays.€€The€Ô_ÔmedicantÔ_ÔÐ Qì Ðorders€first€appeared€in€the€early€1200s.€€Teaching€that€a€person€must€give€up€all€he€or€she€has€andÐ =Ø Ðfollow€Christ,€preaching€that€the€Kingdom€of€God€is€at€hand,€they€took€literally€Christ's€injunctionÐ )Ä Ðto€take€no€thought€for€the€morrow€and€His€obvious€dislike€of€wealth.€They€were€to€beg€for€theirÐ ° Ðliving.€€This€ideal€was€widely€held,€especially€among€the€heretical€Ô_ÔWaldensiansÔ_Ô.€€St.€Francis€of€AssisiÐ  œ Ð(1881/2„1226)€domesticated€it,€receiving€Innocent€III's€blessing€on€his€new€Franciscan€order€in€1210.€Ð í ˆ ÐSt.€Dominic's€Dominican€order€followed€shortly.€€Together€the€two€orders€formed€the€'storm€troops'Ð Ù t Ðof€reform€in€the€13th€century.€€Preaching€in€the€growing€urban€centers,€they€attacked€heresy€andÐ Å ` Ðspread€the€ideal€of€papal€supremacy.€€The€Dominicans€staffed€the€Holy€Office,€or€Inquisition,Ð ± L  Ðfounded€to€eradicate€heresy€in€France.€€With€the€Franciscans€living€in€holy€poverty€and€theÐ  8  ÐDominicans€using€their€finely€honed€intellectual€skills€to€preach€and€teach€against€unorthodoxÐ ‰$  Ðreligion€the€Church€had€the€power€to€attract€and€hold€popular€support.€Ð u  ÐÌà  àBy€the€early€14th€century,€however,€the€official€church€was€diverging€more€and€more€fromÐ Mè  Ðthe€spiritual€direction€of€its€more€ardent€followers.€€Within€the€Franciscan€Order€a€split€hadÐ 9Ô  Ðdeveloped€over€how€poor€Christ€required€one€to€be.€€Did€Christ€own€the€clothes€he€wore?€€For€thoseÐ %À Ðwho€affirmed€he€did€not€the€worldly€wealth€and€power€of€the€Church€establishment€was€an€affront.€Ð ¬ ÐFor€the€Church€it€became€necessary€to€hunt€down€the€Spiritual€Franciscans.€€Although€most€peopleÐ ý˜ Ðwere€not€as€radical€as€the€Spiritual€Franciscans,€it€was€widely€felt€that€an€individual€had€to€find€GodÐ é„ Ðin€his€or€her€life€rather€than€depending€on€the€priest€to€deliver€Him€on€the€pix.€€Ô_ÔMeisterÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔEckhardtÔ_Ô€(d.Ð Õp Ð1327)€taught€a€popular€form€of€mysticism€that€stressed€the€sanctity€of€the€everyday€and€mundane,Ð Á\ Ðfathering€a€movement€known€as€Rhineland€Mysticism,€out€of€which€grew€the€important€òòÔ_ÔdevotioÔ_ÔÐ ­H ÐÔ_ÔmodernaÔ_Ôóó€(modern€devotion)€of€the€late€14th€and€15th€centuries.€€Its€followers€lived€a€communalÐ ™4 Ðexistence,€devoting€themselves€to€practical€works€of€piety.€€In€general€popular€piety€was€turning€toÐ …  Ðgood€works€for€its€primary€expression.€Encouraged€by€fiery€Franciscan€preachers€to€contemplateÐ q  Ðpurgatory€and€Hell,€they€struggled€to€work€off€their€sins.€€On€the€other€hand,€very€few€monasteriesÐ ]ø Ðwere€founded.€€Withdrawal€no€longer€appealed€to€those€who€could€afford€to€build€monasteries.€€TheÐ Iä Ðconflicts€within€the€Church€and€between€Church€and€state€in€the€early€14th€century€inducedÐ 5Ð Ðimportant€intellectual€activity.€€When€the€emperor€Louis€XI€"The€Bavarian"€got€into€a€quarrel€withÐ !¼ ÐPope€John€XXII€he€supported€a€group€of€dissident€intellectuals€who€could€give€the€papal€theologiansÐ  ¨ Ðtrouble€by€using€the€science€of€theology€against€them.€€Foremost€among€them€were€Ô_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€ofÐ ù ” ÐPadua€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.€1275„1342)€and€William€of€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô€(d.€1348).€€Ð å!€  ÐÌà  àÔ_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€Padua€wrote€a€work€called€òòÔ_ÔDefensorÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔpacisÔ_Ôóó€(The€Defender€of€the€Peace).€€In€itÐ ½#X" Ðhe€argued€that€the€only€way€in€which€peace€could€be€brought€to€Europe€was€for€the€pope€to€beÐ ©$D # Ðstripped€of€his€secular€power€and€all€power€given€to€the€emperor.€€It€was€a€popular€opinion.€€Dante,Ð •%0!$ Ðin€his€òòDe€Ô_ÔMonarchiaÔ_Ôóó€(On€Monarchy)€expressed€much€the€same€idea.€€In€the€next€generation€JohnÐ &"% ÐÔ_ÔWyclifÔ_Ô€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.€1330„84)€also€called€for€stripping€the€Church€of€its€property€and€giving€all€authority€toÐ m'#& Ðthe€king.€€The€pope,€he€said,€was€Anti„Christ.€€Ô_ÔWyclifÔ_Ô's€ideas€fed€the€important€heresies€of€Ô_ÔLollardyÔ_ÔÐ Y(ô#' Ðin€England€and€Ô_ÔHussismÔ_Ô€in€Bohemia.€Ð E)à$( ÐÌà  àThe€economic€expansion€that€had€begun€in€the€11th€century€continued€until€the€late€13th.€Ð +¸&* ÐAfter€that€demographic€trends€began€to€slow€it.€Indications€are€(and€they€are€vague)€that€theÐ  ,¤'+ ÐEuropean€population€peaked€about€1290€and€then€began€to€slide€back,€perhaps€because€it€hadÐ e Ðreached€the€limit€of€its€food€supply.€€€Certainly€the€early€14th€century€brought€widespread€famine€thatÐ Qì Ðkept€recurring€until€the€bubonic€plague€struck€between€1347€and€51,€reducing€the€population€by€moreÐ =Ø Ðthan€a€third.€Ð )Ä ÐÌà  àThe€shocking€mortality€of€the€Black€Death€had€a€tremendous€impact€on€European€society.€Ð  œ ÐIt€had€the€effect€of€speeding€up€some€trends€and€retarding€others,€but€to€what€extent€is€hotly€debated.€Ð í ˆ ÐGenerally,€however,€there€is€no€doubt€that€a€severe€labor€shortage€was€one€of€its€immediate€effects.€Ð Ù t ÐAnother€was€the€redistribution€of€wealth€among€the€survivors,€giving€them€hope€of€a€higher€standardÐ Å ` Ðof€living€as€their€diets€improved€and€demand€drove€up€the€price€of€their€labor.€Ð ± L  ÐÌà  àThose€who€paid€for€the€labor€reacted€by€appealing€to€their€rulers,€and€often€surrenderingÐ ‰$  Ðsome€of€their€own€freedom,€in€hopes€of€getting€the€wages€and€social€mobility€of€workers€controlledÐ u  Ðby€legislation.€€They€wanted€wages€and€prices€returned€to€1347€levels.€€The€peasants€and€workersÐ aü  Ðreacted€violently.€€The€Ô_ÔJacquerieÔ_Ô€(1358)€and€Ô_ÔTuchinatÔ_Ô€(1380s)€revolts€in€France,€the€Peasants'€RevoltÐ Mè  Ðin€England€(1381),€the€maritime€revolt€in€Flanders€(1382„4),€and€the€Ô_ÔCiompiÔ_Ô€Revolt€in€FlorenceÐ 9Ô  Ð(1376„9)€were€brutally€suppressed.€€All€had€their€roots€in€the€social€and€economic€displacementsÐ %À Ðfollowing€the€plague.€Ð ¬ ÐÌà  àSimply€controlling€the€labor€force,€however,€did€not€solve€the€problem€(and€controlling€it€wasÐ é„ Ðnearly€impossible).€€Landlords€turned€to€producing€cash€crops€that€were€demanded€by€the€clothÐ Õp Ðindustry€and€used€less€human€labor,€such€as€wool.€€This,€in€turn,€meant€that€the€rural€economyÐ Á\ Ðbecame€closely€tied€to€the€urban€centers,€supplying€raw€materials€for€manufacturing.€In€the€city€theÐ ­H Ðmerchants€and€artisans€were€also€forced€to€become€more€efficient€in€order€to€survive.€€One€of€theÐ ™4 Ðmethods€they€used€was€double€entry€bookkeeping€and€the€introduction€of€Arabic€numbers.€€FirstÐ …  Ðappearing€in€Italy,€these€made€it€easier€for€a€manager€to€determine€income€and€expense€in€a€timeÐ q  Ðwhen€their€margins€were€being€squeezed.€€These€responses€to€the€labor€shortage€and€disruption€afterÐ ]ø Ðthe€Black€Death€mark€the€beginning€of€capitalism€in€Europe.€Ð Iä ÐÌà  àOther€groups€affected€by€the€mortality€were€the€Church€and€the€governments.€€Both€facedÐ !¼ Ðlabor€shortages€of€their€own.€€The€Church€suffered€a€huge€loss€of€clergy€and€monks€and€nuns,€notÐ  ¨ Ðleast€because€their€duties€brought€them€into€close€contact€with€the€disease.€€Therefore€it€was€illÐ ù ” Ðprepared€to€meet€the€demand€for€spiritual€services€the€plague€induced.€€There€was€a€striking€growth,Ð å!€  Ðfor€instance,€in€the€cults€of€saints€Sebastian€and€Giles,€the€two€who€protected€people€from€the€plague.€Ð Ñ"l! ÐFor€governments€the€problem€had€a€different€cast.€€There€were€many€fewer€men€to€be€recruited€intoÐ ½#X" Ðthe€armies.€€Their€response€was€to€crate€smaller,€more€professional€military€units.€€This,€of€course,Ð ©$D # Ðdrove€up€the€costs€of€warfare.€Ð •%0!$ ÐÌà  àThe€Black€Death€undermined€feudalism€and€gave€more€power€to€centralizing€governments.€Ð m'#& ÐIt€changed€the€relationship€between€rural€and€urban€areas,€undermining€Ô_ÔmanorialismÔ_Ô.€€It€acceleratedÐ Y(ô#' Ðchanges€in€business€that€moved€Europe€toward€capitalism.€€And€it€created€a€higher€standard€of€livingÐ E)à$( Ðand€often€bloody€social€tensions€for€Europe's€peasants.€€In€many€ways€it€marks€the€end€of€the€"HighÐ 1*Ì%) ÐMiddle€Ages."€Ð +¸&* ÐÐ  ,¤'+ Ðà  àThe€14th€century€€also€saw€the€beginning€of€an€era€often€called€"The€Renaissance."€€AccuracyÐ e Ðdemands€that€we€call€it€the€Later€Middle€Ages€within€which€occurred€a€cultural€movement€bestÐ Qì Ðdescribed€as€the€Italian€Renaissance.€€(The€Term€"renaissance"€is€tricky„„it€has€been€used€to€oftenÐ =Ø Ðabout€too€many€things€e.g.€the€English€renaissance€will€not€occur€until€the€early€17th€century.)Ð )Ä ÐÌà  àThe€rebirth€of€the€study€of€classical€history€and€languages€began,€this€time,€in€Italy,€whereÐ  œ Ðthe€urban€society€had€kept€alive€a€tradition€of€secular€learning.€€The€òòÔ_ÔdictatoresÔ_Ôóó€of€the€Italian€citiesÐ í ˆ Ðneeded€to€have€very€good€Latin,€and€so€were€taught€it€from€the€classical€sources,€especially€Cicero.€Ð Ù t ÐOut€of€this€base,€with€its€emphasis€on€the€study€of€the€humanities€as€a€preparation€for€public€lifeÐ Å ` Ðappeared€a€movement€which€stressed€the€reform€of€the€self€and€society€by€the€use€of€history€andÐ ± L  ÐÔ_ÔlinguistisÔ_Ô.€€We€usually€associate€three€14th€century€names€with€the€new€movement:€€Dante,€Ô_ÔPetrarchÔ_Ô,Ð  8  Ðand€Ô_ÔBoccaccioÔ_Ô.€€Each€of€them€united€within€themselves€purely€medieval€characteristics€with€a€newÐ ‰$  Ðattitude€toward€the€classical€past.€€They€embraced€the€ideals€of€chivalric€romance,€accepted€that€itÐ u  Ðwas€proper€to€write€in€the€language€of€the€people,€and€were€deeply€religious.€€At€the€same€time,Ð aü  Ðhowever,€they€rejected€scholastic€philosophy€and€theology€in€favor€of€the€humanities€as€the€essentialÐ Mè  Ðsubjects€for€study.€€It€is€no€accident€that€Dante's€tour€of€Hell€was€led€by€the€Roman€poet€Virgil€ratherÐ 9Ô  Ðthan€Aristotle.€Ð %À ÐÌà  àIn€the€14th€century€the€humanist€movement€was€small€and€individual.€€By€its€end,€however,Ð ý˜ Ða€training€in€the€humanities€was€becoming€essential€to€those€who€would€rule€the€Italian€city€states„„Ð é„ Ðnot€least€because€those€city€states€so€often€replicated€the€political€worlds€of€the€city€states€of€GreeceÐ Õp Ðand€Republican€Rome.€€Ð Á\ ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ  ,¤'+ ЇÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIVÐ Qì ÐÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àHIGHà h àCULTURE,€1050„1450Ð )Ä ÐÌReadings:€Bennett€&€Ô_ÔHollisterÔ_Ô,€289„320,€366„83.Ð  œ ÐÌÔ‡XSëXXXSëÔGeary,€òòReadingsóó:€Ô_ÔMartinanusÔ_Ô€Capella;€Augustine;€Anselm;€Bernard€of€Ô_ÔClairvauxÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔGuibertÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔNogentÔ_Ô;Ð Ù t ÐBonaventure;€Ô_ÔSigerÔ_Ô€of€Ô_ÔBrabantÔ_Ô;€Thomas€Aquinas;€Margery€Ô_ÔKempeÔ_Ô.Ô#†XSëXXXSët#ÔÐ Å ` ÐÌEssay€on€God€and€Creation€€to€be€posted€not€later€than€8:00€a.m.€on€July€29.Ô‡XSëXXXSëÔÐ  8  ÐÌà  à€à0 ` àThe€"renaissance"€reached€philosophic€maturity€in€the€13th€century€debates€about€theÐ u  Ðrelationship€between€God€and€creation.€€Using€Bonaventure,€Ô_ÔSigerÔ_Ô,€and€AquinasÐ aü  Ðdescribe€the€scholastic€method€of€argument€and€their€answers€to€the€questionÐ Mè  Ð"Whether€the€world€has€been€produced€in€time€or€from€eternity."Ð9Ô ` (#` (# ÐÌVocabulary:Ð ¬ Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àCisterciansà  àà h àBernard€of€Ô_ÔClairvauxÔ_ÔÐý˜` (#` (# Ðà  àà ` àGothicà ¸ àà  àà h àÔ_ÔromanesqueÔ_ÔÐ é„ Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àsyllogismà  àà h àdialecticÐÕp` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àliberal€artsà  àà h àòòÔ_ÔuniversitasÔ_ÔóóÐÁ\` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àmysticism€€€€€€€€€€€à h àThomas€AquinasЭH` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àPeter€Ô_ÔAbelardÔ_Ôà  àà h àÔ_ÔSugerÔ_Ô€of€St.€Denis€Ð™4` (#` (# Ðà  àà ` àÔ_ÔGoliardiÔ_Ô€€€€€€€€€à  àà h àcanon€lawÐ …  Ðà  àà ` àWilliam€of€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô€€€scholasticismÐ q  ÐÌÌÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àIVÐ ù ” ÐÌà  àThis€period€between€1050€and€1350€is€sometimes€called€the€"12th€Century€Renaissance."€Ð Ñ"l! ÐIt€gets€its€name€from€the€"rebirth"€of€classical€studies€in€the€period€that€as€Roman€and€Greek€thinkersÐ ½#X" Ðinspired€new€thoughts€in€the€West.€€It€began€in€Italy€with€the€study€of€Roman€law,€and€in€France€withÐ ©$D # Ðthe€revival€of€the€humanities.€€By€the€middle€of€the€12th€century,€however,€the€movement€had€begunÐ •%0!$ Ðto€change€its€character.€€The€new€universities€began€to€institutionalize€it€and€the€emphasis€movedÐ &"% Ðto€philosophy€and€theology.€€Thanks€to€the€intellectuals€of€the€period€modern€Western€law€andÐ m'#& ÐChristianity€were€born,€and€the€foundations€laid€for€the€later€Renaissance.€Ð Y(ô#' ÐÌà  àThis€"Renaissance"€was€not,€however,€totally€dependant€on€classical€models.€€In€art€andÐ 1*Ì%) Ðarchitecture€there€developed€a€distinctive€new€style€that€rejected€the€Ô_ÔromanesqueÔ_Ô€styles€of€abstractionÐ +¸&* Ðand€heavy€dark€buildings€in€favor€of€realism€and€the€soaring€lightness€of€the€gothic€architecture.€Ð  ,¤'+ Їà  àCulturally€this€is€one€of€the€most€important€moments€in€the€history€of€Europe€for€it€createdÐ e Ðinstitutions€and€attitudes€of€mind€that€still€endure.€Scholars€have€fought€bitterly€over€the€importanceÐ Qì Ðof€the€cultural€contributions€it€made,€some€claiming€that€the€modern€world€was€born€here.€€It€can€beÐ =Ø Ðsaid,€with€some€certainty,€that€it€was€much€more€important€to€Europe€than€the€Italian€Renaissance,Ð )Ä Ðsince€that€renaissance€occurred€within€the€institutional€framework€already€built€in€the€12th€century.€Ð ° ÐÌà  àThe€sources€of€the€intellectual€revival€are€multiple.€€One€was€the€Gregorian€reform,€with€itsÐ í ˆ Ðneed€for€definition€and€administrators.€€Another€was€the€grammar€schools€of€the€French€cathedrals,Ð Ù t Ðwhich€drew€students€and€teachers€from€all€over€Europe.€€Yet€another€was€contact€with€Jewish€andÐ Å ` ÐIslamic€scholarship€brought€about€by€the€crusades.€€Thanks€to€the€completely€free€movement€ofÐ ± L  Ðpeople€and€the€unifying€force€of€Latin€as€the€intellectual€language€the€ideas€that€came€from€theseÐ  8  Ðvarious€sources€spread€easily.€Ð ‰$  ÐÌà  àThe€revolution€in€law€began€in€Italy€where€the€Roman€legal€tradition€had€never€entirely€died.€Ð aü  ÐSpurred€by€the€Gregorian€reformers'€need€for€a€clear€articulation€of€what€a€Christian€should€andÐ Mè  Ðshould€not€do,€Ô_ÔGratianÔ_Ô€of€Bologna€created€his€òòÔ_ÔDecretumÔ_Ôóó,€or€òòConcord€of€Discordant€Canonsóó,€thatÐ 9Ô  Ðwould€become€the€mother€text€of€western€law.€€Attempting€to€reconcile€contradictory€precedents€byÐ %À Ðidentifying€the€underlying€principles€and€then€extending€them€by€analogy,€he€taught€medievalÐ ¬ Ðlawyers€a€method€still€used.€€Ð ý˜ ÐÌà  àSpain,€where€Muslims,€Christians,€and€Jews€mixed€freely€in€the€border€towns€of€Al„Ð Õp ÐÔ_ÔAndalusiaÔ_Ô,€was€the€gateway€for€Greek,€Muslim,€and€Jewish€ideas.€€An€influential€school€ofÐ Á\ Ðtranslation€appeared€in€Toledo€led€by€Gerard€of€Ô_ÔCremonaÔ_Ô€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.€1114„87).€€Its€main€area€of€interest€wasÐ ­H Ðmathematical€and€scientific€works,€and€scholars€there€translated€the€writings€of€Ô_ÔAverroesÔ_Ô€of€CordobaÐ ™4 Ðwhose€works€were€based€upon€Aristotelian€physics.€€This€recovery€of€Aristotle€would€revolutionizeÐ …  ÐChristian€thought€in€the€west.€€A€Jewish€theologian,€Moses€Ô_ÔMaimonidesÔ_Ô,€who€was€also€fromÐ q  ÐCordoba,€had€applied€Aristotelian€methods€to€the€interpretation€of€the€Torah,€giving€an€example€thatÐ ]ø Ðwould€be€emulated€by€Christian€theologians.€€Scholars€in€Toledo€also€translated€the€Ô_ÔQur'anÔ_Ô€intoÐ Iä ÐLatin.€€This€was€prompted€by€a€crusading€desire€to€"know€thy€enemy"€in€order€to€destroy€him,€butÐ 5Ð Ðin€the€process€Muslim€theological€concepts€were€breached.€Ð !¼ ÐÌà  àThe€humanistic,€as€opposed€to€the€theological,€legal,€or€philosophical€beginnings€of€thisÐ ù ” Ðrenaissance€are€to€be€found€in€the€Cathedral€schools€of€the€Ile€de€Paris.€€The€cathedral€schools€wereÐ å!€  Ðdesigned€to€produce€clergymen.€€Since€their€professional€language€was€Latin€these€schools€stressedÐ Ñ"l! Ðgrammar€and,€consequently,€used€the€best€Latin€available,€that€of€the€Augustan€age,€as€texts.€€By€theÐ ½#X" Ðearly€12th€century€these€schools,€especially€those€of€Ô_ÔCartresÔ_Ô€and€Paris,€were€attracting€celebratedÐ ©$D # Ðteachers€and,€in€turn,€students,€where€were€less€interested€in€theology€than€in€Cicero.€€The€new€urbanÐ •%0!$ Ðsociety€needed€literate€professionals,€just€as€did€the€new€bureaucracy€of€church€and€state,€and€theseÐ &"% Ðschools€began€to€produce€them.€€Many€of€the€leading€literary€figures€of€the€age,€like€John€ofÐ m'#& ÐSalisbury€and€Walter€Map,€were€trained€in€the€cathedral€schools€but€spent€their€lives€in€the€serviceÐ Y(ô#' Ðof€princes€and€prelates.€Ð E)à$( ÐÌà  àSchools€were€becoming€important€all€over€Europe€and€the€12th€century€saw€the€founding€ofÐ +¸&* Ðuniversities€in€many€cities.€€Bologna,€where€the€students€created€the€university€and€governed€it€forÐ  ,¤'+ Ða€time,€was€a€center€for€law€and€medicine.€€Paris,€where€the€bishop's€chaplain€turned€into€theÐ e Ðchancellor€of€the€University€of€Paris,€was€famous€for€its€theology.€€Oxford,€in€which€teachers€andÐ Qì Ðstudents€lived€together,€became€a€center€for€science.€€In€all€of€these€places€the€concentration€ofÐ =Ø Ðlearned€people€and€books€stimulated€intellectual€activity€and€created€methodologies.€Ð )Ä ÐÌà  àOne€of€the€most€important€figures€of€the€first€university€generation€was€Peter€Ô_ÔAbelardÔ_Ô€ofÐ  œ ÐParis.€€A€noted€teacher€with€a€famous€but€tragic€life,€he€pioneered€what€became€known€as€theÐ í ˆ Ðscholastic€method„„the€scientific€method€of€the€Schools.€€In€his€book€òòSic€et€Nonóó€(Yes€and€No)€heÐ Ù t Ðposited€that€through€doubting€we€come€to€inquiry,€through€inquiry€we€come€to€faith.€€He€thenÐ Å ` Ðproceeded€to€show€how€that€inquiry€ought€to€be€carried€out:€€muster€the€pro€arguments€against€theÐ ± L  Ðcon,€taking€apart€their€internal€logic€in€search€of€a€shared€element€of€truth,€and€then€resolving€theÐ  8  Ðquestion.€€His€system€was€based€on€Aristotelian€logic,€giving€his€students€a€powerful€new€€analyticalÐ ‰$  Ðmethod.€He€is€also€important€because€of€his€insistence€that€it€is€possible€to€know€God€rationally„„thatÐ u  Ðscience€and€faith€need€not€conflict.€€This€willingness€to€accept€human€reason€as€legitimate€has€beenÐ aü  Ðcentral€to€western€European€thought€ever€since.€Ð Mè  ÐÌà  àThe€tools€of€Aristotelian€logic€were€seized€by€some€with€enthusiasm€because€people€wereÐ %À Ðseeking€new€ways€of€understanding€their€faith.€€As€the€spiritual€emphasis€shifted€to€a€more€personalÐ ¬ Ðrelationship€with€God,€people€needed€to€know€what€they€should€do.€It€was€no€longer€sufficient€toÐ ý˜ Ðwitness€the€magic€of€the€mass.€€Action€was€called€for,€but€that€meant€understanding€God's€will€forÐ é„ Ðthe€individual.€€Thus€theology€of€all€kinds€was€booming€in€the€12th€century.€€St.€Anselm,€usingÐ Õp ÐPlatonic€models,€produced€his€great€òòCur€Deus€homoóó€(Why€God€became€man)€at€the€beginning€of€theÐ Á\ Ðcentury.€€St.€Bernard€of€Ô_ÔClairvauxÔ_Ô€took€a€different€route€to€God.€€His€theology€stressed€the€personal,Ð ­H Ðmystical€experience€of€God€in€combination€with€action„„whether€as€a€knight€dedicated€to€God€andÐ ™4 Ðkilling€in€the€defense€of€the€faith,€or€as€a€monk€of€Bernard's€ascetic€Cistercian€order.€Ð …  ÐÌà  àThe€people€who€followed€different€theological€and€philosophical€schools€were€frequentlyÐ ]ø Ðhostile€to€one€another„„Bernard€tried€to€get€Ô_ÔAbelardÔ_Ô€convicted€of€heresy„„but€none€of€them€triumphedÐ Iä Ðentirely.€€All€of€their€systems€continued€to€exist€in€and€out€of€the€universities.€€However,€theÐ 5Ð ÐAristotelian€system€did€predominate.€€In€part€because€it€had€such€a€great€expositor€in€St.€ThomasÐ !¼ ÐAquinas€who€welded€scholastic€logic€and€theology€together€in€such€a€way€that€it€became€a€veryÐ  ¨ Ðuseful€tool€to€anyone€in€search€of€rational€solutions.€€Ð ù ” ÐÌà  àAquinas,€born€about€1226,€created€a€mature€philosophical€system€out€of€a€combination€ofÐ Ñ"l! ÐÔ_ÔAristoteleanismÔ_Ô,€Christian€theology,€and€syllogistic€method.€€Arguing€that€nature€was,€like€the€Bible,Ð ½#X" Ða€form€of€revelation,€he€assumed€that€by€observing€creation€we€could€learn€the€mind€of€the€creator.€Ð ©$D # ÐÔ_ÔCrudleyÔ_Ô€put,€this€meant€that€any€problem€of€theology€or€ethics€could€be€answered€by€a€trainedÐ •%0!$ Ðscientist.€€God's€mind€could€be€read€by€the€professional€lawyers€of€the€church€according€theÐ &"% Ðfollowing€syllogisms:€(1)€God€created€the€material€world;€€Men€can€know€the€material€world;Ð m'#& ÐTherefore€men€can€know€God€through€creation.€€(2)€God€made€nature.€€God€is€good.€€ThereforeÐ Y(ô#' Ðnature€is€good.€(3)€Ergo,€what€is€unnatural€is€a€perversion€of€creation.€€God€is€the€creator.€€ThereforeÐ E)à$( Ðunnatural€acts€are€sinful€because€they€are€contrary€to€God's€will.€€€Ð 1*Ì%) Ðà  àÌà  àIt€followed€that€if€the€men€of€the€Church€could€know€God's€will€they€had€the€duty€to€enforceÐ  ,¤'+ Ðit.€€It€was€a€perfect€principle€for€the€lawyer€popes€like€Innocent€III,€whose€4th€Ô_ÔLateranÔ_Ô€CouncilÐ e Ðreflected€this€legalization€of€the€Church's€system€of€enforcement.€€However,€within€scholasticÐ Qì Ðphilosophy€there€was€a€dangerous€principle:€€Anyone€able€to€work€the€syllogisms€could€know€GodÐ =Ø Ðwithout€reference€to€the€Ô_ÔannointedÔ_Ô€leaders€of€the€Church.€€Indeed,€anyone€disagreeing€with€theÐ )Ä Ðpapacy,€like€Louis€of€Bavaria,€could€use€theological€scientists€to€deny€the€propriety€of€the€pope'sÐ ° Ðdecisions.€€That€is€why€men€like€Ô_ÔMarsiliusÔ_Ô€of€Padua€and€William€of€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô€were€welcomed€andÐ  œ Ðsupported€by€Louis€in€the€early€14th€century.Ð í ˆ ÐÌà  àWilliam€of€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô,€a€Spiritual€Franciscan€who€fled€from€Pope€John€XXII€because€of€hisÐ Å ` Ðviews€of€poverty,€developed€a€variant€of€scholastic€philosophy€known€as€nominalism.€€WhereasÐ ± L  ÐAquinas€had€assumed€that€all€nature€can€be€read€as€a€reflection€of€God,€Ô_ÔWyclifÔ_Ô€denied€that€the€sensesÐ  8  Ðcan€provide€any€certain€knowledge€of€the€divine.€€Only€spiritual€experience€can€give€us€trueÐ ‰$  Ðknowledge.€€The€challenge€he€launched€to€the€salvation€system€of€the€church,€which€dependedÐ u  Ðheavily€on€pious€action€undertaken€in€order€to€do€what€God€willed,€would€have€important€effects.€Ð aü  ÐBoth€Martin€Luther€and€Jean€Calvin€were€deeply€influenced€by€nominalism,€so€that€it€was€a€basicÐ Mè  Ðelement€in€the€Reformation.€€At€the€same€time,€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô€said€that€our€senses€were€capable€ofÐ 9Ô  Ðunderstanding€what€they€could€sense.€€Therefore€many€of€his€followers€began€to€study€the€worldÐ %À Ðwithout€referring€all€cause€and€effect€to€the€deity.€€Their€work,€based€on€mathematical€description,Ð ¬ Ðis€one€important€root€of€modern€science.€€This€emphasis€of€studying€natural€cause€and€effect€isÐ ý˜ Ðbeautifully€displayed€in€the€book€and€movie€òòThe€Name€of€the€Roseóó,€whose€hero€is€modeled€onÐ é„ ÐWilliam€of€Ô_ÔOckhamÔ_Ô.Ð Õp ÐÌà  àThis€veneration€of€God€in€His€creation€can€also€be€seen€in€the€arts€and€architecture€emergingÐ ­H Ðin€the€12th€century.€€It€was€a€time€of€intense€church€building€all€over€Europe,€marked€by€two€distinctÐ ™4 Ðstyles,€Ô_ÔromanesqueÔ_Ô€and€gothic.€€In€France€and€England€in€particular€the€buildings€of€the€early€12thÐ …  Ðcentury€tend€to€be€Ô_ÔromanesqueÔ_Ô,€characterized€by€rounded€arches,€thick€bearing€walls,€small€windows,Ð q  Ðand€abstract€art.€€These€churches€were€dark€caves€of€mysterious€sanctity€was€abstract€art€emphasizedÐ ]ø Ðthe€transcendence€of€God.€€By€the€13th€century€the€new€gothic€style,€pioneered€in€the€Ô_Ôð2ðleÔ_Ô€de€Paris€inÐ Iä Ðchurches€like€St.€Denis,€Notre€Dame€de€Paris,€and€Chartres,€had€replaced€the€Ô_ÔromanesqueÔ_Ô.€€GothicÐ 5Ð Ðis€characterized€by€pointed€arches,€glass„filled€walls€supported€by€flying€buttresses,€light,€and€highlyÐ !¼ Ðrealistic€art.€€These€churches,€based€on€the€Ô_ÔneoplatonicÔ_Ô€philosophy€of€St.€Denis€the€Ô_ÔAreopagiteÔ_Ô,Ð  ¨ Ðcelebrated€God€and€God's€creation.€€The€light€emanating€from€God€filled€the€buildings,€lighting€theirÐ ù ” Ðpainted€windows€and€illuminating€the€lively€carvings€and€paintings€that€covered€nearly€every€inchÐ å!€  Ðof€the€interiors.€Ð Ñ"l! ÐÌà  àThe€stunning€beauty€of€these€new€gothic€buildings€did€not€appeal€to€the€people€of€GermanyÐ ©$D # Ðand€Italy.€€There€the€popular€style€remained€Ô_ÔromanesqueÔ_Ô,€though€they,€too,€were€influenced€by€theÐ •%0!$ Ðtrend€toward€artistic€realism.€€Ð &"% ÐÌà  àAnother€notable€development€beginning€in€the€12th€century€is€the€appearance€of€livelyÐ Y(ô#' Ðvernacular€poetry€and€literature.€€In€France,€in€particular,€the€troubadours€began€telling€the€storiesÐ E)à$( Ðof€heroes€like€King€Arthur€and€Roland€that€founded€the€tradition€of€chivalric€literature.€€TheÐ 1*Ì%) Ðliterature€of€courtly€love€appeared,€too,€marking€the€important€transition€of€the€military€aristocracyÐ +¸&* Ðfrom€one€of€the€sword€to€a€class€marked€by€chivalric€manners.€€The€enthusiasm€of€the€merchants€andÐ  ,¤'+ Ðupper€classes€for€this€literature€encouraged€it€and,€by€the€beginning€of€the€14th€century,€mostÐ e ÐEuropean€languages€had€a€great€literature€of€its€own,€capped€with€names€like€Dante€and€Chaucer.€Ð Qì ÐÌÌà  àThe€intellectual€and€cultural€developments€of€the€high€Middle€Ages€had€a€profound€impactÐ ° Ðon€later€developments.€€Philosophy,€religion,€law,€art,€architecture,€and€education€were€all€changedÐ  œ Ðby€them.€€Ô#†XSëXXXSë°ƒ#Ô