How
can psychology be defined, and what are three ways of expanding
on that definition?
2.
What
was Descartes' version of dualism, and how did it help pave
the way for a science of behavior?
3.
Why
is Descartes' theory, despite its intuitive appeal, unsuitable
as a foundation for a complete psychology?
4.
How
did Hobbes's materialism and the subsequent development of
empiricist philosophy help lay the groundwork for a science
of psychology?
5.
How
did the nineteenth-century conception of the nervous system
inspire a theory of behavior called reflexology?
6.
How
did discoveries of localization of function in the brain help
establish the idea that the mind can be studied scientifically?
7.
How
did Darwin's theory of natural selection offer a scientific
basis for functional explanations of behavior?
8.
Why
is Wundt considered the founder of scientific psychology?
How are two of his key ideas illustrated by his reaction-time
experiments?
9.
What
was the goal of Titchener's structuralism? Why did his introspective
approach to the structure of the mind fail as a scientific
method?
10.
How
was James's functionalism different from Titchener's structuralism?
How did James's use of introspection differ from Titchener's?
11.
How
did a perceptual effect, the phi phenomenon, help promote
Gestalt psychology as an alternative to structuralism?
12.
How
was the Gestalt school of thought applied to descriptions
of perception and problem solving?
13.
What
are four principles of behaviorism set forth by its founder,
John B. Watson?
14.
How
was Skinner's version of behaviorism similar to Watson's,
and how was it different?
15.
How
did ethology and behaviorism differ? Why did they later begin
to merge?
16.
How
did Lashley's early work in physiological psychology challenge
Watson's behaviorism? How did it help bring behaviorism and
ethology closer together?
17.
How
did Freud arrive at his concept of an unconscious mind that
influences conscious thought and behavior? How was Freud's
work different from that occurring in academic circles, and
how did it broaden the range of psychological inquiry?
18.
In
what sense does humanistic psychology present an optimistic
view of human nature? What is the goal of humanistic therapy?
19.
What
are the basic premises of cultural psychology as advocated
by Wundt and Vygotsky?
20.
How
does social psychology differ from cultural psychology? What
role did Lewin play in the development of modern social psychology?
21.
What
were some historical precursors to modern cognitive psychology?
22.
How
did Piaget's and Chomsky's ideas contribute to the rise of
cognitive psychology?
23.
How
did the computer analogy contribute to the rise of cognitive
psychology?
24.
How
does psychology link the three main divisions of academic
studies?
25.
How
can psychology be understood historically in terms of alternative
ways of characterizing the human mind? What is the value of
a historical perspective in psychology?
How
did Clever Hans give the appearance of answering questions,
and how did Pfungst unveil Hans's methods?
2.
How
are facts, theories, and hypotheses related to one another
in scientific research?
3.
How
does the Clever Hans story illustrate the value of skepticism,
the value of controlled experimentation, and the need to rule
out observer-expectancy effects?
4.
How
does an experiment test causal hypotheses?
5.
What
are the independent and dependent variables in (a) Pfungst's
experiment with Hans and (b) the experiment on treatments
for depression?
6.
How
do correlational studies differ from experiments, and why
must caution be exerted in inferring causal relationships
from them?
7.
How
do descriptive studies differ from experiments and from correlational
studies?
8.
What
are advantages and disadvantages of laboratory studies compared
with field studies?
9.
How
do self-report methods, naturalistic observations, and tests
differ from one another? What are some advantages and disadvantages
of each?
10.
How
do the mean, median, and standard deviation help describe
a set of numbers?
11.
How
does a correlation coefficient describe the direction and
strength of a correlation?
12.
What
might you infer about your hypothesis if your experimental
results were statistically significant at the 5 percent level?
13.
How
is statistical significance affected by the size of the effect,
the number of subjects or observations in each group, and
the variability of the scores within each group?
14.
What
is the difference between error and bias, and why is bias
the more serious problem?
15.
How
can a nonrepresentative selection of research participants
introduce bias into (a) an experiment and (b) a descriptive
study?
16.
What
is the difference between reliability and validity of a measurement
procedure?
17.
How
can the validity of a measurement procedure be assessed, and
how can lack of validity contribute to bias?
18.
How
can the supposed phenomenon of facilitated communication,
by persons with autism, be explained as an observer-expectancy
effect?
19.
What
are two ways by which an observer's expectations can bias
results in a typical experiment? How does blind observation
prevent such bias?
20.
How
can subjects' expectancies bias the results of an experiment?
How does a double-blind procedure control both subjects' and
observers' expectancies?
21.
What
are the ethical concerns pertaining to privacy, discomfort,
deception, and animal welfare? How do researchers strive to
satisfy these concerns?
How
can genes affect behavioral traits through their role in protein
synthesis?
2.
What
does it mean to say that genes can influence behavioral traits
only through interaction with the environment? How, in general,
do genes figure into long-term behavioral changes that derive
from experience?
3.
How
does meiosis produce egg or sperm cells that are all genetically
different from one another, and what consequence does this
have for the offspring of sexually reproducing creatures?
4.
What
is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene
(or allele)?
5.
What
does it mean to say that you and a specific relative are x
percent related?
6.
Why
do three-fourths of the offspring of two heterozygous parents
show the dominant trait and one-fourth show the recessive
trait?
7.
How
did Scott and Fuller show that the difference between cocker
spaniels and basenji hounds in fearfulness is controlled by
a single gene locus with the "fear" allele dominant over the
"nonfear" allele?
8.
Why
would it be a mistake to conclude from Scott and Fuller's
work that fear in dogs is due to a single gene or due to genes
and not environment?
9.
How
has knowledge of the genetic basis of PKU led to an environmental
treatment?
10.
How
does the paired nature of genes reduce the incidence of genetic
disorders?
11.
What
is the evidence that a particular deficit in language acquisition
may depend on a single dominant gene?
12.
How
does the distribution of scores for a polygenic trait differ
from that usually obtained for a single-gene trait?
13.
How
did Tryon produce "maze bright" and "maze dull" strains of
rats; how did he show that the difference was due to genes,
not rearing?
14.
Why
is the strain difference produced by Tryon not appropriately
characterized in terms of general "brightness" or "dullness"?
15.
How
is natural selection similar to and different from artificial
selection?
16.
What
is the source of genetic variation on which natural selection
acts?
17.
How
did a study of finches illustrate the effect of environmental
change on evolution?
18.
What
are three mistaken beliefs about evolution, all related to
the misbelief that foresight is involved?
19.
Why
does evolution apply as much to behavior as to anatomy?
20.
What
is the functionalist approach in psychology, and how is it
applied at the evolutionary level?
21.
What
is the difference between ultimate and proximate explanations
of behavior?
22.
What
are two means by which useless characteristics might emerge
in evolution?
23.
How
did Tinbergen identify the sign stimulus for the attack response
in the male stickleback?
24.
What
evidence supports the idea that humans are biologically predisposed
to express particular emotions in particular species-typical
ways?
25.
Why
are species-typical behaviors in mammals better characterized
in terms of biological preparedness than as fixed action patterns,
and how is such preparedness evident for two-legged walking
and language in humans?
26.
Why
is the concept of species-typical behavior relative rather
than absolute?
27.
What
is the purpose of deprivation experiments, and how is that
purpose illustrated in studies of fighting in rats and singing
in white-crowned sparrows?
28.
What
is the difference between a homology and an analogy, in behavior
as well as anatomy?
29.
How
did Darwin use comparison by homology to infer the evolutionary
steps through which honeybees acquired their hive-making ability?
30.
How
do studies of monkeys and apes support the view that the human
greeting smile and happy smile have separate evolutionary
origins?
31.
How
can comparison by homology be used to infer the original functions
of behaviors that are now vestigial?
32.
What
sorts of questions do sociobiologists ask, and how do they
use comparison by analogy to help answer them?
33.
Based
on Trivers's theory of parental investment, why does high
investment by the female lead to (a) polygyny, (b) large size
of males, and (c) high selectivity in the female's choice
of mate?
34.
How
do sex differences in spotted sandpipers help confirm Trivers's
theory?
35.
How
does the high rate of monogamy among birds and carnivores
help support Trivers's theory?
36.
For
what evolutionary reasons might monogamously mated females
and males copulate with partners other than their mate?
37.
What
appears to be the evolutionary advantage of polygynandry for
chimpanzees and bonobos, and in what ways is it more fully
developed for the latter than the former?
38.
How
do territorial signaling and the home-court advantage help
reduce bloodshed in territorial animals?
39.
How
do submissive signals and dominance hierarchies help reduce
aggression within the colony?
40.
How
can male chimpanzees and bonobos achieve dominance through
means other than their own fighting ability?
41.
How
do the kin selection and reciprocity theories take the altruism
out of "altruism"?
42.
Why
is the equation of "natural" with "right" considered a fallacy?
43.
Why is it a mistake to believe that characteristics that are
influenced by genes cannot be modified except by modifying
genes?
44.
What
evidence suggests we are predisposed to live in communities,
and how do our communities compare with those of other apes?
45.
What
evidence suggests that the kin selection theory of altruism
applies to humans, as it does to other species?
46.
What
evidence suggests that humans evolved as a moderately polygynous
species?
47.
How
do sociobiologists explain the link between sexual jealousy
and violence in men?
48.
What
four lessons are proposed as coming to psychology from evolutionary
thought and research? Through what examples was each supported
in this chapter? tioned response to a drug-related stimulus
often
What
is behaviorism, and what two classes of learning are identified
by this perspective?
2.
What
is a reflex, and how can it change through habituation?
3.
How
did Pavlov discover the conditioned reflex? How did he then
systematize the process of conditioning and name the relevant
stimuli and responses?
4.
How
can classical conditioning be understood as an objectification
of the philosophers' law of association by contiguity?
5.
How
can a conditioned reflex be extinguished? What evidence indicates
that extinction does not return the animal to the untrained
state?
6.
How
can generalization in classical conditioning be abolished
through discrimination training, and how can discrimination
training be used to assess an animal's sensory capacities?
7.
How
did Watson demonstrate that an emotional reaction can be conditioned?
8.
Why
is the conditioned response to a drug-related stimulus often
the opposite of the most direct effect of the drug?
9.
How
does the conditioning of counteractive drug effects help explain
why an addict's usual dose can sometimes be an "overdose"?
10.
How
did Thorndike's training procedure differ from Pavlov's, and
how did it help lead Thorndike to formulate the law of effect?
11.
How
did Skinner's method for studying learning differ from Thorndike's,
and why did he prefer the term reinforcer to Thorndike's satisfaction?
12.
How
did Hefferline condition people to make a tiny thumb twitch,
and how is this relevant for understanding the acquisition
of motor skills?
13.
How
can biofeedback training be described as operant conditioning?
14.
How
can operant conditioning be used to get an animal to do something
that it presently doesn't do?
15.
How
do the four types of partial-reinforcement schedules differ
from one another, and why is it generally adaptive to respond
faster to ratio schedules than to interval schedules?
16.
How
can partial-reinforcement schedules be used to produce behavior
that is very resistant to extinction?
17.
How
can a neutral stimulus be turned into a discriminative stimulus
to control an operant response?
18.
How
can a discriminative stimulus for one response serve as a
reinforcer for a new response and thereby link two responses
together in a chain?
19.
How
does negative reinforcement differ from positive reinforcement?
20.
How
does punishment differ from reinforcement, and how do the
two kinds of punishment parallel the two kinds of reinforcement?
21.
What
are some problems with the use of punishment to improve a
child's behavior?
22.
In
the most general terms, how does the cognitive perspective
differ from the behavioral perspective?
23.
What
is some evidence, from people and pigeons, that conditioned
and discriminative stimuli are interpreted before they are
responded to?
24.
How
is it possible to test the S-R and S-S theories of classical
conditioning, and how does an experiment involving habituation
support the latter?
25.
How
does the construct of expectancy help explain the ways in
which a conditioned response is different from an unconditioned
response?
26.
What
are three different conditions in which the pairing of a new
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus does not result in
classical conditioning? How do these observations support
a cognitive view of conditioning?
27.
How
can the view that operant conditioning involves means-end
knowledge be experimentally tested? What are the results of
one such test?
28.
How
are reward contrast effects explained from a cognitive perspective,
and what is the evidence that they depend on brain structures
not present in fish and reptiles?
29.
How
does the overjustification effect illustrate a limitation
in the use of reward to promote certain behaviors in people?
30.
How
did Tolman show that rats use cognitive maps and that they
learn such maps whether they are rewarded or not?
31.
How
did Bandura demonstrate two different functions of observational
learning in experiments with children?
32.
How
does Bandura's theory illustrate the idea that learning cannot
be understood in isolation from other mental processes?
33.
How
does the ecological perspective differ from the behavioral
and cognitive perspectives?
34.
What
are two ways in which food-aversion learning differs from
typical examples of classical conditioning, and how do these
differences make sense in terms of the function of such learning?
35.
How
might rats learn which food contains a needed vitamin?
36.
How
are Davis's observations with human babies similar to results
of food-selection experiments with rats? Why should we be
cautious in interpreting Davis's study?
37.
What
evidence, with rats and people, points to the importance of
social learning in food selection?
38.
In
sum, what has natural selection imparted to young omnivores
about food selection?
39.
What
is some evidence that people and monkeys are biologically
predisposed to learn to fear some things more easily than
other things?
40.
What
aspect of a young fowl's ability to follow its mother depends
on learning, and how is that learning guided by inborn biases?
41.
How
might the ecological perspective help us predict which place-learning
tasks an animal will find easy or difficult to master? What
special place-learning abilities have been observed in (a)
rats, (b) birds that hide food, and (c) Pacific salmon?
42.
What
features of each perspective on learning are noted here as
an aid in beginning your review of and reflection on the ideas
in this chapter?
What
are the three types of neurons and the function of each?
3.
What
are the main parts of a motor neuron, and what is the function
of each part?
4.
How
do interneurons and sensory neurons differ anatomically from
motor neurons?
5.
How
do the autonomic and skeletal motor systems differ from each
other?
6.
How
do the sympathetic and parasympathetic portions of the autonomic
system differ from each other?
7.
How
does the spinal cord serve as (1) a conduit between spinal
nerves and the brain, (2) an organizer of rhythmic locomotor
movements, and (3) an organizer of certain reflexes?
8.
How
is the brainstem similar to and different from the spinal
cord? What role does the brainstem play in the control of
behavior?
9.
In
what sense is the thalamus a relay station?
10.
What
are the main functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
Why are these structures classed together even though they
are anatomically distinct?
11.
Why
is the limbic system so named, and what functions does it
perform?
12.
What
are three ways by which the hypothalamus controls the body's
internal environment?
13.
What
are the four lobes of the cortex, and what are the three functional
categories of areas that exist within these lobes?
14.
What
does it mean to say that cortical sensory and motor areas
are organized topographically?
15.
What
is some evidence that the primary motor cortex comes relatively
late in the chain of command preceding an action and that
its function is to refine the more delicate parts of the action?
16.
What
is some evidence that the premotor and supplementary motor
areas of the cortex help set up programs for skilled actions?
17.
How
do association areas in (a) the frontal lobe and (b) the parietal
and temporal lobes contribute to movement control?
18.
From
an evolutionary perspective, why does it make sense to view
the nervous system as a hierarchy of movement-control mechanisms?
19.
How
is the hierarchy of motor control illustrated by an imaginative
tour through the nervous system of a person who decides to
eat some peanuts?
20.
What
is the difference between knowing where a brain function occurs
and knowing how it occurs?
21.
In
what ways are the two hemispheres of the cortex functionally
symmetrical and in what ways not?
22.
How
is it possible to test each hemisphere separately in split-brain
patients, and how do such tests confirm the view that the
left hemisphere controls speech and the right hemisphere has
superior spatial ability?
23.
What
is the difference between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias
in (a) language production, (b) language comprehension, and
(c) area of brain destroyed?
24.
How
did Carl Wernicke account for the brain's involvement in speech
comprehension and production, and how has that account been
revised in recent times?
25.
How
can PET be used to make a picture reflecting the relative
amount of neural activity in various parts of the brain as
a person engages in particular cognitive tasks? How is the
procedure exemplified in a study involving word perception
and production?
26.
How
does the resting potential arise from the distribution of
ions across the cell membrane?
27.
How
do the two phases of the action potential (depolarization
and repolarization) result from the successive opening and
closing of two kinds of channels through the membrane?
28.
How
is an axon's conduction speed related to its diameter and
the presence or absence of a myelin sheath?
29.
How
do neurotransmitters at excitatory and inhibitory fast synapses
affect the rate at which action potentials are produced in
the postsynaptic neuron?
30.
How
does slow synaptic transmission differ from fast transmission,
and, in general, what sorts of functions are served by slow
transmission?
31.
What
brain changes have been observed in rats and mice caged in
enriched compared with deprived environments?
32.
What
is some evidence, from studies of other animals and of humans,
that practice at specific sensory discrimination tasks can
alter neural connections so that more neurons become devoted
to the task?
33.
How
can the gill-withdrawal reflex be classically conditioned
in Aplysia, and what is the neural mechanism that underlies
the conditioning?
34.
How
are hormones similar to, and different from, neurotransmitters?
35.
What
are two lines of evidence supporting the idea that hormones
and neurotransmitters have a common evolutionary origin?
36.
What
are examples of long-term and short-term effects of hormones?
37.
At
a molecular level, how do hormones exert their effects?
38.
How
does the brain control the release of hormones from the two
lobes of the pituitary and thereby control the release of
other hormones as well?
39.
What
are three ways in which drugs can alter activity at a synapse?
40.
How
can the effects of curare, L-dopa, and psychoactive drugs
be interpreted in terms of the hierarchical model of movement
control?
41.
How
can drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms be explained in
terms of physiological adaptation to a drugged state? For
amphetamines, how might this adaptation occur at the molecular
level?
42.
What
three broad ideas are suggested as a framework for reviewing
the chapter?
What
are the main components of the so-called modal model of the
mind? What is the purpose of such a model?
2.
What
is the function of sensory memory, and how do its characteristics
suit it for that function?
3.
How
did Eriksen and Collins demonstrate that seeing the icon is
like seeing the original stimulus?
4.
What
is some evidence that sounds might be modified in echoic memory
before they are consciously heard?
5.
What
are the basic functions of working memory, and what are its
main components? How is working memory like the central processing
unit of a computer?
6.
How
do variations in the span of short-term memory, and means
of interfering with that span, support the concept of a phonological
loop involving subvocal repetition?
7.
How
do we use the visuospatial sketch pad to make judgments about
spatial relationships?
8.
What
is the evidence that the visuospatial sketch pad and the phonological
loop have different characteristics and can operate independently
of each other? How did an experiment by Kosslyn demonstrate
a similarity between visual imagery and actual looking?
9.
How
did Farah demonstrate that brain areas crucial for specific
aspects of visual perception are crucial for comparable aspects
of visual imagery drawn from memory?
10.
In
the modal model, what are the functions of attention, encoding,
and retrieval?
11.
In
the modal model, what is the function of long-term memory,
and how is this memory store different from working memory?
12.
What
is some evidence for and against the idea that repetition
in working memory promotes encoding into long-term memory?
13.
What
is some evidence, from both the classroom and the laboratory,
that the more deeply a person thinks about an item of information,
the more likely it is that the item will be encoded into long-term
memory?
14.
How
can chunking be used to increase the amount of information
that can be maintained in short-term memory or encoded into
long-term memory?
15.
Why
can master chess players remember the arrangement of chess
pieces after a single, brief look, whereas novices can't?
16.
What
is a hierarchical organization, and how can such an organization
improve long-term memory?
17.
How
does Paivio's dual-coding theory explain the value of visualization
in memory encoding? How does the key-word method make use
of both visualization and chunking?
18.
What
is the decay theory of forgetting, and why is it not well
accepted today?
19.
What
is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference,
and what are the conditions under which these effects are
most likely to occur?
20.
What
do the principles of association by contiguity and association
by similarity say about retrieval from long-term memory? According
to James, how does the second principle depend on the first?
21.
What
sorts of experimental results was Collins and Loftus's spreading-activation
model designed to portray? How does the model continue the
tradition of associationism begun by Aristotle?
22.
How
does the encoding-specificity principle help explain the value
of elaborative encoding and the remarkable performance of
experimental subjects on a recall test for 500 nouns?
23.
How
can context-dependent memory be demonstrated, and how is it
consistent with the encoding-specificity principle?
24.
How
can state-dependent memory be demonstrated, and what significance
might it have for understanding effects of mood on memory?
25.
How
did Bartlett demonstrate that culture-specific schemas affect
the way that people remember a story?
26.
How
did Loftus demonstrate that information added after an event
can affect people's apparent memory for the event? What evidence
led McCloskey and Zaragoza to dispute Loftus's interpretation
of her results?
27.
How
does the problem of memory construction figure into issues
of psychotherapy and legal action?
28.
Why
should hypnotized subjects' claims of vivid memories not be
taken at face value?
29.
How
do the two subclasses of explicit memory differ from each
other?
30.
Why
are implicit memories not well described in terms of the modal
model? What are some examples of different kinds of implicit
memories?
31.
In
what sense are implicit memories more situation-dependent
than explicit memories?
32.
What
is some evidence that perceptual priming involves implicit
memory and that the encoding process for it is different from
that for explicit memory?
33.
How
can conceptual priming be demonstrated, and what function
does it probably serve?
34.
How
does the case of H. M. support the idea of a sharp distinction
between short-term explicit memory and long-term explicit
memory?
35.
What
evidence indicates that the hippocampus and structures near
it are involved in encoding long-term memories?
36.
What
is the evidence that the hippocampus and nearby temporal-lobe
structures are not essential for forming or using implicit
memories?
37.
How
have studies of monkeys led to a distinction between habit
and cognitive memory systems paralleling that between implicit
and explicit systems in humans?
38.
What
is some evidence that episodic and semantic memory may involve
different neural systems?
39.
How
can the chapter be reviewed from a functional perspective?
How might the modal model skew our understanding of memory?
How are laboratory and ecological approaches to memory both
represented in this chapter?
What
is the evidence that infants prefer to look at novel stimuli?
2.
What
is the evidence that infants are motivated to control their
environment and are emotionally involved in gaining and retaining
control?
3.
What
is the evidence that infants' examining of objects (a) involves
active mental processing, (b) helps them learn about the unique
properties of specific objects, and (c) occurs regardless
of whether or not adults encourage it?
4.
What
are three ways by which infants, beginning at roughly 6 to
12 months, use their observations of adults' behavior to guide
their own explorations?
5.
How
have empiricist and nativist philosophers differed in their
view of the origin of a person's knowledge of core physical
principles?
6.
What
is the rationale behind the habituation method for studying
infants' knowledge of physical principles? With this method,
what have researchers found about the knowledge of 2- to 4-month-olds?
7.
How
did Piaget test infants' understanding of object permanence?
How might the discrepancy between Piaget's results and the
results of selective-looking experiments be explained?
8.
What
evidence suggests that self-produced locomotion leads to improvement
in retrieving hidden objects and to fear of heights? How might
the latter effect be explained from an evolutionary perspective?
9.
In
Piaget's theory, what is a scheme, how do schemes develop
through assimilation and accommodation, and what is the special
value of operations? How do all these cooncepts relate to
Piaget's idea that mental growth occurs through the child's
own, self-motivated actions?
10.
In
Piaget's stage theory, (a) what are the four stages and the
ages roughly associated with each, (b) how are the child's
capacities and limitations at each stage related to the kind
of scheme that is most prominent, and (c) how does the child's
behavior at each stage promote advancement toward the next
stage?
11.
What
do developmental psychologists today tend to admire most about
Piaget's theory, and what criticisms have been raised concerning
(a) Piaget's claims about age differences in reasoning, (b)
his theory of the process of change, and (c) his emphasis
on the physical rather than social environment?
12.
What
is the information-processing perspective on cognitive development,
and how does it differ from Piaget's perspective?
13.
How
might a continuous increase in the capacity of working memory
produce stagelike development in problem-solving ability?
14.
What
is the evidence that an increase in mental speed results from
biological maturation, and how might that account for increased
working-memory capacity?
15.
How
does Siegler's explanation of improvement in solving balance-beam
problems differ from the kind of explanation that Piaget would
offer?
16.
How
does Karmiloff-Smith's theory of mental redescription build
on the concepts of implicit and explicit knowledge to account
for the emergence of creativity in a domain?
17.
How
does the theory of explication account for the worsened block-balancing
performance of 6-year-olds compared with 4-year-olds?
18.
How
does Vygotsky's perspective on cognitive development differ
from Piaget's?
19.
In
Vygotsky's view, how does acquisition of language lead to
a higher form of thought?
20.
According
to Vygotsky, what is the function of noncommunicative speech
in children? What evidence supports Vygotsky's view?
21.
According
to Vygotsky, how are a child's abilities stretched and improved
through collaboration with other people? How does Vygotsky's
apprentice view of the child contrast with Piaget's scientist
view?
22.
In
what sense are we all psychologists in everyday life, and
what evidence suggests that young children are too?
23.
What
evidence suggests that most 4-year-olds, but not most 3-year-olds,
understand that people can hold false beliefs?
24.
What
evidence suggests that pretend play may be an evolutionary
adaptation whose function is to enable children to understand
false beliefs and other nonliteral mental states?
25.
How
does research on people with autism support the premise that
the understanding of minds and the understanding of physical
objects are fundamentally distinct abilities?
26.
How
does research on autism support the idea that an understanding
of false belief and deception may derive, in part, from prior
engagement in pretend play?