How
can psychology be defined, and what are three ways of expanding
on that definition?
2.
What
was Descartes' version of dualism, and how did it help pave
the way for a science of behavior?
3.
Why
is Descartes' theory, despite its intuitive appeal, unsuitable
as a foundation for a complete psychology?
4.
How
did Hobbes's materialism and the subsequent development of
empiricist philosophy help lay the groundwork for a science
of psychology?
5.
How
did the nineteenth-century conception of the nervous system
inspire a theory of behavior called reflexology?
6.
How
did discoveries of localization of function in the brain help
establish the idea that the mind can be studied scientifically?
7.
How
did Darwin's theory of natural selection offer a scientific
basis for functional explanations of behavior?
8.
Why
is Wundt considered the founder of scientific psychology?
How are two of his key ideas illustrated by his reaction-time
experiments?
9.
What
was the goal of Titchener's structuralism? Why did his introspective
approach to the structure of the mind fail as a scientific
method?
10.
How
was James's functionalism different from Titchener's structuralism?
How did James's use of introspection differ from Titchener's?
11.
How
did a perceptual effect, the phi phenomenon, help promote
Gestalt psychology as an alternative to structuralism?
12.
How
was the Gestalt school of thought applied to descriptions
of perception and problem solving?
13.
What
are four principles of behaviorism set forth by its founder,
John B. Watson?
14.
How
was Skinner's version of behaviorism similar to Watson's,
and how was it different?
15.
How
did ethology and behaviorism differ? Why did they later begin
to merge?
16.
How
did Lashley's early work in physiological psychology challenge
Watson's behaviorism? How did it help bring behaviorism and
ethology closer together?
17.
How
did Freud arrive at his concept of an unconscious mind that
influences conscious thought and behavior? How was Freud's
work different from that occurring in academic circles, and
how did it broaden the range of psychological inquiry?
18.
In
what sense does humanistic psychology present an optimistic
view of human nature? What is the goal of humanistic therapy?
19.
What
are the basic premises of cultural psychology as advocated
by Wundt and Vygotsky?
20.
How
does social psychology differ from cultural psychology? What
role did Lewin play in the development of modern social psychology?
21.
What
were some historical precursors to modern cognitive psychology?
22.
How
did Piaget's and Chomsky's ideas contribute to the rise of
cognitive psychology?
23.
How
did the computer analogy contribute to the rise of cognitive
psychology?
24.
How
does psychology link the three main divisions of academic
studies?
25.
How
can psychology be understood historically in terms of alternative
ways of characterizing the human mind? What is the value of
a historical perspective in psychology?
How
did Clever Hans give the appearance of answering questions,
and how did Pfungst unveil Hans's methods?
2.
How
are facts, theories, and hypotheses related to one another
in scientific research?
3.
How
does the Clever Hans story illustrate the value of skepticism,
the value of controlled experimentation, and the need to rule
out observer-expectancy effects?
4.
How
does an experiment test causal hypotheses?
5.
What
are the independent and dependent variables in (a) Pfungst's
experiment with Hans and (b) the experiment on treatments
for depression?
6.
How
do correlational studies differ from experiments, and why
must caution be exerted in inferring causal relationships
from them?
7.
How
do descriptive studies differ from experiments and from correlational
studies?
8.
What
are advantages and disadvantages of laboratory studies compared
with field studies?
9.
How
do self-report methods, naturalistic observations, and tests
differ from one another? What are some advantages and disadvantages
of each?
10.
How
do the mean, median, and standard deviation help describe
a set of numbers?
11.
How
does a correlation coefficient describe the direction and
strength of a correlation?
12.
What
might you infer about your hypothesis if your experimental
results were statistically significant at the 5 percent level?
13.
How
is statistical significance affected by the size of the effect,
the number of subjects or observations in each group, and
the variability of the scores within each group?
14.
What
is the difference between error and bias, and why is bias
the more serious problem?
15.
How
can a nonrepresentative selection of research participants
introduce bias into (a) an experiment and (b) a descriptive
study?
16.
What
is the difference between reliability and validity of a measurement
procedure?
17.
How
can the validity of a measurement procedure be assessed, and
how can lack of validity contribute to bias?
18.
How
can the supposed phenomenon of facilitated communication,
by persons with autism, be explained as an observer-expectancy
effect?
19.
What
are two ways by which an observer's expectations can bias
results in a typical experiment? How does blind observation
prevent such bias?
20.
How
can subjects' expectancies bias the results of an experiment?
How does a double-blind procedure control both subjects' and
observers' expectancies?
21.
What
are the ethical concerns pertaining to privacy, discomfort,
deception, and animal welfare? How do researchers strive to
satisfy these concerns?
How
can genes affect behavioral traits through their role in protein
synthesis?
2.
What
does it mean to say that genes can influence behavioral traits
only through interaction with the environment? How, in general,
do genes figure into long-term behavioral changes that derive
from experience?
3.
How
does meiosis produce egg or sperm cells that are all genetically
different from one another, and what consequence does this
have for the offspring of sexually reproducing creatures?
4.
What
is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene
(or allele)?
5.
What
does it mean to say that you and a specific relative are x
percent related?
6.
Why
do three-fourths of the offspring of two heterozygous parents
show the dominant trait and one-fourth show the recessive
trait?
7.
How
did Scott and Fuller show that the difference between cocker
spaniels and basenji hounds in fearfulness is controlled by
a single gene locus with the "fear" allele dominant over the
"nonfear" allele?
8.
Why
would it be a mistake to conclude from Scott and Fuller's
work that fear in dogs is due to a single gene or due to genes
and not environment?
9.
How
has knowledge of the genetic basis of PKU led to an environmental
treatment?
10.
How
does the paired nature of genes reduce the incidence of genetic
disorders?
11.
What
is the evidence that a particular deficit in language acquisition
may depend on a single dominant gene?
12.
How
does the distribution of scores for a polygenic trait differ
from that usually obtained for a single-gene trait?
13.
How
did Tryon produce "maze bright" and "maze dull" strains of
rats; how did he show that the difference was due to genes,
not rearing?
14.
Why
is the strain difference produced by Tryon not appropriately
characterized in terms of general "brightness" or "dullness"?
15.
How
is natural selection similar to and different from artificial
selection?
16.
What
is the source of genetic variation on which natural selection
acts?
17.
How
did a study of finches illustrate the effect of environmental
change on evolution?
18.
What
are three mistaken beliefs about evolution, all related to
the misbelief that foresight is involved?
19.
Why
does evolution apply as much to behavior as to anatomy?
20.
What
is the functionalist approach in psychology, and how is it
applied at the evolutionary level?
21.
What
is the difference between ultimate and proximate explanations
of behavior?
22.
What
are two means by which useless characteristics might emerge
in evolution?
23.
How
did Tinbergen identify the sign stimulus for the attack response
in the male stickleback?
24.
What
evidence supports the idea that humans are biologically predisposed
to express particular emotions in particular species-typical
ways?
25.
Why
are species-typical behaviors in mammals better characterized
in terms of biological preparedness than as fixed action patterns,
and how is such preparedness evident for two-legged walking
and language in humans?
26.
Why
is the concept of species-typical behavior relative rather
than absolute?
27.
What
is the purpose of deprivation experiments, and how is that
purpose illustrated in studies of fighting in rats and singing
in white-crowned sparrows?
28.
What
is the difference between a homology and an analogy, in behavior
as well as anatomy?
29.
How
did Darwin use comparison by homology to infer the evolutionary
steps through which honeybees acquired their hive-making ability?
30.
How
do studies of monkeys and apes support the view that the human
greeting smile and happy smile have separate evolutionary
origins?
31.
How
can comparison by homology be used to infer the original functions
of behaviors that are now vestigial?
32.
What
sorts of questions do sociobiologists ask, and how do they
use comparison by analogy to help answer them?
33.
Based
on Trivers's theory of parental investment, why does high
investment by the female lead to (a) polygyny, (b) large size
of males, and (c) high selectivity in the female's choice
of mate?
34.
How
do sex differences in spotted sandpipers help confirm Trivers's
theory?
35.
How
does the high rate of monogamy among birds and carnivores
help support Trivers's theory?
36.
For
what evolutionary reasons might monogamously mated females
and males copulate with partners other than their mate?
37.
What
appears to be the evolutionary advantage of polygynandry for
chimpanzees and bonobos, and in what ways is it more fully
developed for the latter than the former?
38.
How
do territorial signaling and the home-court advantage help
reduce bloodshed in territorial animals?
39.
How
do submissive signals and dominance hierarchies help reduce
aggression within the colony?
40.
How
can male chimpanzees and bonobos achieve dominance through
means other than their own fighting ability?
41.
How
do the kin selection and reciprocity theories take the altruism
out of "altruism"?
42.
Why
is the equation of "natural" with "right" considered a fallacy?
43.
Why is it a mistake to believe that characteristics that are
influenced by genes cannot be modified except by modifying
genes?
44.
What
evidence suggests we are predisposed to live in communities,
and how do our communities compare with those of other apes?
45.
What
evidence suggests that the kin selection theory of altruism
applies to humans, as it does to other species?
46.
What
evidence suggests that humans evolved as a moderately polygynous
species?
47.
How
do sociobiologists explain the link between sexual jealousy
and violence in men?
48.
What
four lessons are proposed as coming to psychology from evolutionary
thought and research? Through what examples was each supported
in this chapter? tioned response to a drug-related stimulus
often
What
is behaviorism, and what two classes of learning are identified
by this perspective?
2.
What
is a reflex, and how can it change through habituation?
3.
How
did Pavlov discover the conditioned reflex? How did he then
systematize the process of conditioning and name the relevant
stimuli and responses?
4.
How
can classical conditioning be understood as an objectification
of the philosophers' law of association by contiguity?
5.
How
can a conditioned reflex be extinguished? What evidence indicates
that extinction does not return the animal to the untrained
state?
6.
How
can generalization in classical conditioning be abolished
through discrimination training, and how can discrimination
training be used to assess an animal's sensory capacities?
7.
How
did Watson demonstrate that an emotional reaction can be conditioned?
8.
Why
is the conditioned response to a drug-related stimulus often
the opposite of the most direct effect of the drug?
9.
How
does the conditioning of counteractive drug effects help explain
why an addict's usual dose can sometimes be an "overdose"?
10.
How
did Thorndike's training procedure differ from Pavlov's, and
how did it help lead Thorndike to formulate the law of effect?
11.
How
did Skinner's method for studying learning differ from Thorndike's,
and why did he prefer the term reinforcer to Thorndike's satisfaction?
12.
How
did Hefferline condition people to make a tiny thumb twitch,
and how is this relevant for understanding the acquisition
of motor skills?
13.
How
can biofeedback training be described as operant conditioning?
14.
How
can operant conditioning be used to get an animal to do something
that it presently doesn't do?
15.
How
do the four types of partial-reinforcement schedules differ
from one another, and why is it generally adaptive to respond
faster to ratio schedules than to interval schedules?
16.
How
can partial-reinforcement schedules be used to produce behavior
that is very resistant to extinction?
17.
How
can a neutral stimulus be turned into a discriminative stimulus
to control an operant response?
18.
How
can a discriminative stimulus for one response serve as a
reinforcer for a new response and thereby link two responses
together in a chain?
19.
How
does negative reinforcement differ from positive reinforcement?
20.
How
does punishment differ from reinforcement, and how do the
two kinds of punishment parallel the two kinds of reinforcement?
21.
What
are some problems with the use of punishment to improve a
child's behavior?
22.
In
the most general terms, how does the cognitive perspective
differ from the behavioral perspective?
23.
What
is some evidence, from people and pigeons, that conditioned
and discriminative stimuli are interpreted before they are
responded to?
24.
How
is it possible to test the S-R and S-S theories of classical
conditioning, and how does an experiment involving habituation
support the latter?
25.
How
does the construct of expectancy help explain the ways in
which a conditioned response is different from an unconditioned
response?
26.
What
are three different conditions in which the pairing of a new
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus does not result in
classical conditioning? How do these observations support
a cognitive view of conditioning?
27.
How
can the view that operant conditioning involves means-end
knowledge be experimentally tested? What are the results of
one such test?
28.
How
are reward contrast effects explained from a cognitive perspective,
and what is the evidence that they depend on brain structures
not present in fish and reptiles?
29.
How
does the overjustification effect illustrate a limitation
in the use of reward to promote certain behaviors in people?
30.
How
did Tolman show that rats use cognitive maps and that they
learn such maps whether they are rewarded or not?
31.
How
did Bandura demonstrate two different functions of observational
learning in experiments with children?
32.
How
does Bandura's theory illustrate the idea that learning cannot
be understood in isolation from other mental processes?
33.
How
does the ecological perspective differ from the behavioral
and cognitive perspectives?
34.
What
are two ways in which food-aversion learning differs from
typical examples of classical conditioning, and how do these
differences make sense in terms of the function of such learning?
35.
How
might rats learn which food contains a needed vitamin?
36.
How
are Davis's observations with human babies similar to results
of food-selection experiments with rats? Why should we be
cautious in interpreting Davis's study?
37.
What
evidence, with rats and people, points to the importance of
social learning in food selection?
38.
In
sum, what has natural selection imparted to young omnivores
about food selection?
39.
What
is some evidence that people and monkeys are biologically
predisposed to learn to fear some things more easily than
other things?
40.
What
aspect of a young fowl's ability to follow its mother depends
on learning, and how is that learning guided by inborn biases?
41.
How
might the ecological perspective help us predict which place-learning
tasks an animal will find easy or difficult to master? What
special place-learning abilities have been observed in (a)
rats, (b) birds that hide food, and (c) Pacific salmon?
42.
What
features of each perspective on learning are noted here as
an aid in beginning your review of and reflection on the ideas
in this chapter?
What
are the three types of neurons and the function of each?
3.
What
are the main parts of a motor neuron, and what is the function
of each part?
4.
How
do interneurons and sensory neurons differ anatomically from
motor neurons?
5.
How
do the autonomic and skeletal motor systems differ from each
other?
6.
How
do the sympathetic and parasympathetic portions of the autonomic
system differ from each other?
7.
How
does the spinal cord serve as (1) a conduit between spinal
nerves and the brain, (2) an organizer of rhythmic locomotor
movements, and (3) an organizer of certain reflexes?
8.
How
is the brainstem similar to and different from the spinal
cord? What role does the brainstem play in the control of
behavior?
9.
In
what sense is the thalamus a relay station?
10.
What
are the main functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
Why are these structures classed together even though they
are anatomically distinct?
11.
Why
is the limbic system so named, and what functions does it
perform?
12.
What
are three ways by which the hypothalamus controls the body's
internal environment?
13.
What
are the four lobes of the cortex, and what are the three functional
categories of areas that exist within these lobes?
14.
What
does it mean to say that cortical sensory and motor areas
are organized topographically?
15.
What
is some evidence that the primary motor cortex comes relatively
late in the chain of command preceding an action and that
its function is to refine the more delicate parts of the action?
16.
What
is some evidence that the premotor and supplementary motor
areas of the cortex help set up programs for skilled actions?
17.
How
do association areas in (a) the frontal lobe and (b) the parietal
and temporal lobes contribute to movement control?
18.
From
an evolutionary perspective, why does it make sense to view
the nervous system as a hierarchy of movement-control mechanisms?
19.
How
is the hierarchy of motor control illustrated by an imaginative
tour through the nervous system of a person who decides to
eat some peanuts?
20.
What
is the difference between knowing where a brain function occurs
and knowing how it occurs?
21.
In
what ways are the two hemispheres of the cortex functionally
symmetrical and in what ways not?
22.
How
is it possible to test each hemisphere separately in split-brain
patients, and how do such tests confirm the view that the
left hemisphere controls speech and the right hemisphere has
superior spatial ability?
23.
What
is the difference between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias
in (a) language production, (b) language comprehension, and
(c) area of brain destroyed?
24.
How
did Carl Wernicke account for the brain's involvement in speech
comprehension and production, and how has that account been
revised in recent times?
25.
How
can PET be used to make a picture reflecting the relative
amount of neural activity in various parts of the brain as
a person engages in particular cognitive tasks? How is the
procedure exemplified in a study involving word perception
and production?
26.
How
does the resting potential arise from the distribution of
ions across the cell membrane?
27.
How
do the two phases of the action potential (depolarization
and repolarization) result from the successive opening and
closing of two kinds of channels through the membrane?
28.
How
is an axon's conduction speed related to its diameter and
the presence or absence of a myelin sheath?
29.
How
do neurotransmitters at excitatory and inhibitory fast synapses
affect the rate at which action potentials are produced in
the postsynaptic neuron?
30.
How
does slow synaptic transmission differ from fast transmission,
and, in general, what sorts of functions are served by slow
transmission?
31.
What
brain changes have been observed in rats and mice caged in
enriched compared with deprived environments?
32.
What
is some evidence, from studies of other animals and of humans,
that practice at specific sensory discrimination tasks can
alter neural connections so that more neurons become devoted
to the task?
33.
How
can the gill-withdrawal reflex be classically conditioned
in Aplysia, and what is the neural mechanism that underlies
the conditioning?
34.
How
are hormones similar to, and different from, neurotransmitters?
35.
What
are two lines of evidence supporting the idea that hormones
and neurotransmitters have a common evolutionary origin?
36.
What
are examples of long-term and short-term effects of hormones?
37.
At
a molecular level, how do hormones exert their effects?
38.
How
does the brain control the release of hormones from the two
lobes of the pituitary and thereby control the release of
other hormones as well?
39.
What
are three ways in which drugs can alter activity at a synapse?
40.
How
can the effects of curare, L-dopa, and psychoactive drugs
be interpreted in terms of the hierarchical model of movement
control?
41.
How
can drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms be explained in
terms of physiological adaptation to a drugged state? For
amphetamines, how might this adaptation occur at the molecular
level?
42.
What
three broad ideas are suggested as a framework for reviewing
the chapter?
What
are the main components of the so-called modal model of the
mind? What is the purpose of such a model?
2.
What
is the function of sensory memory, and how do its characteristics
suit it for that function?
3.
How
did Eriksen and Collins demonstrate that seeing the icon is
like seeing the original stimulus?
4.
What
is some evidence that sounds might be modified in echoic memory
before they are consciously heard?
5.
What
are the basic functions of working memory, and what are its
main components? How is working memory like the central processing
unit of a computer?
6.
How
do variations in the span of short-term memory, and means
of interfering with that span, support the concept of a phonological
loop involving subvocal repetition?
7.
How
do we use the visuospatial sketch pad to make judgments about
spatial relationships?
8.
What
is the evidence that the visuospatial sketch pad and the phonological
loop have different characteristics and can operate independently
of each other? How did an experiment by Kosslyn demonstrate
a similarity between visual imagery and actual looking?
9.
How
did Farah demonstrate that brain areas crucial for specific
aspects of visual perception are crucial for comparable aspects
of visual imagery drawn from memory?
10.
In
the modal model, what are the functions of attention, encoding,
and retrieval?
11.
In
the modal model, what is the function of long-term memory,
and how is this memory store different from working memory?
12.
What
is some evidence for and against the idea that repetition
in working memory promotes encoding into long-term memory?
13.
What
is some evidence, from both the classroom and the laboratory,
that the more deeply a person thinks about an item of information,
the more likely it is that the item will be encoded into long-term
memory?
14.
How
can chunking be used to increase the amount of information
that can be maintained in short-term memory or encoded into
long-term memory?
15.
Why
can master chess players remember the arrangement of chess
pieces after a single, brief look, whereas novices can't?
16.
What
is a hierarchical organization, and how can such an organization
improve long-term memory?
17.
How
does Paivio's dual-coding theory explain the value of visualization
in memory encoding? How does the key-word method make use
of both visualization and chunking?
18.
What
is the decay theory of forgetting, and why is it not well
accepted today?
19.
What
is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference,
and what are the conditions under which these effects are
most likely to occur?
20.
What
do the principles of association by contiguity and association
by similarity say about retrieval from long-term memory? According
to James, how does the second principle depend on the first?
21.
What
sorts of experimental results was Collins and Loftus's spreading-activation
model designed to portray? How does the model continue the
tradition of associationism begun by Aristotle?
22.
How
does the encoding-specificity principle help explain the value
of elaborative encoding and the remarkable performance of
experimental subjects on a recall test for 500 nouns?
23.
How
can context-dependent memory be demonstrated, and how is it
consistent with the encoding-specificity principle?
24.
How
can state-dependent memory be demonstrated, and what significance
might it have for understanding effects of mood on memory?
25.
How
did Bartlett demonstrate that culture-specific schemas affect
the way that people remember a story?
26.
How
did Loftus demonstrate that information added after an event
can affect people's apparent memory for the event? What evidence
led McCloskey and Zaragoza to dispute Loftus's interpretation
of her results?
27.
How
does the problem of memory construction figure into issues
of psychotherapy and legal action?
28.
Why
should hypnotized subjects' claims of vivid memories not be
taken at face value?
29.
How
do the two subclasses of explicit memory differ from each
other?
30.
Why
are implicit memories not well described in terms of the modal
model? What are some examples of different kinds of implicit
memories?
31.
In
what sense are implicit memories more situation-dependent
than explicit memories?
32.
What
is some evidence that perceptual priming involves implicit
memory and that the encoding process for it is different from
that for explicit memory?
33.
How
can conceptual priming be demonstrated, and what function
does it probably serve?
34.
How
does the case of H. M. support the idea of a sharp distinction
between short-term explicit memory and long-term explicit
memory?
35.
What
evidence indicates that the hippocampus and structures near
it are involved in encoding long-term memories?
36.
What
is the evidence that the hippocampus and nearby temporal-lobe
structures are not essential for forming or using implicit
memories?
37.
How
have studies of monkeys led to a distinction between habit
and cognitive memory systems paralleling that between implicit
and explicit systems in humans?
38.
What
is some evidence that episodic and semantic memory may involve
different neural systems?
39.
How
can the chapter be reviewed from a functional perspective?
How might the modal model skew our understanding of memory?
How are laboratory and ecological approaches to memory both
represented in this chapter?
What
is the evidence that infants prefer to look at novel stimuli?
2.
What
is the evidence that infants are motivated to control their
environment and are emotionally involved in gaining and retaining
control?
3.
What
is the evidence that infants' examining of objects (a) involves
active mental processing, (b) helps them learn about the unique
properties of specific objects, and (c) occurs regardless
of whether or not adults encourage it?
4.
What
are three ways by which infants, beginning at roughly 6 to
12 months, use their observations of adults' behavior to guide
their own explorations?
5.
How
have empiricist and nativist philosophers differed in their
view of the origin of a person's knowledge of core physical
principles?
6.
What
is the rationale behind the habituation method for studying
infants' knowledge of physical principles? With this method,
what have researchers found about the knowledge of 2- to 4-month-olds?
7.
How
did Piaget test infants' understanding of object permanence?
How might the discrepancy between Piaget's results and the
results of selective-looking experiments be explained?
8.
What
evidence suggests that self-produced locomotion leads to improvement
in retrieving hidden objects and to fear of heights? How might
the latter effect be explained from an evolutionary perspective?
9.
In
Piaget's theory, what is a scheme, how do schemes develop
through assimilation and accommodation, and what is the special
value of operations? How do all these cooncepts relate to
Piaget's idea that mental growth occurs through the child's
own, self-motivated actions?
10.
In
Piaget's stage theory, (a) what are the four stages and the
ages roughly associated with each, (b) how are the child's
capacities and limitations at each stage related to the kind
of scheme that is most prominent, and (c) how does the child's
behavior at each stage promote advancement toward the next
stage?
11.
What
do developmental psychologists today tend to admire most about
Piaget's theory, and what criticisms have been raised concerning
(a) Piaget's claims about age differences in reasoning, (b)
his theory of the process of change, and (c) his emphasis
on the physical rather than social environment?
12.
What
is the information-processing perspective on cognitive development,
and how does it differ from Piaget's perspective?
13.
How
might a continuous increase in the capacity of working memory
produce stagelike development in problem-solving ability?
14.
What
is the evidence that an increase in mental speed results from
biological maturation, and how might that account for increased
working-memory capacity?
15.
How
does Siegler's explanation of improvement in solving balance-beam
problems differ from the kind of explanation that Piaget would
offer?
16.
How
does Karmiloff-Smith's theory of mental redescription build
on the concepts of implicit and explicit knowledge to account
for the emergence of creativity in a domain?
17.
How
does the theory of explication account for the worsened block-balancing
performance of 6-year-olds compared with 4-year-olds?
18.
How
does Vygotsky's perspective on cognitive development differ
from Piaget's?
19.
In
Vygotsky's view, how does acquisition of language lead to
a higher form of thought?
20.
According
to Vygotsky, what is the function of noncommunicative speech
in children? What evidence supports Vygotsky's view?
21.
According
to Vygotsky, how are a child's abilities stretched and improved
through collaboration with other people? How does Vygotsky's
apprentice view of the child contrast with Piaget's scientist
view?
22.
In
what sense are we all psychologists in everyday life, and
what evidence suggests that young children are too?
23.
What
evidence suggests that most 4-year-olds, but not most 3-year-olds,
understand that people can hold false beliefs?
24.
What
evidence suggests that pretend play may be an evolutionary
adaptation whose function is to enable children to understand
false beliefs and other nonliteral mental states?
25.
How
does research on people with autism support the premise that
the understanding of minds and the understanding of physical
objects are fundamentally distinct abilities?
26.
How
does research on autism support the idea that an understanding
of false belief and deception may derive, in part, from prior
engagement in pretend play?
27.
How
do the symbols (morphemes) of human language differ from the
signals used in nonverbal forms of communication?
28.
How
can any sentence be described as a four-level hierarchy, and
how can rules of grammar be described in relation to that
hierarchy?
29.
What
is meant by saying that grammar rules are tacit?
30.
What
is the evidence that humans pay special attention to speech
even before birth and that during the first year after birth
their perception and production of speech sounds are modified
to conform with their native language?
31.
When
is a word really a word?
32.
How
do children link new words that they hear to appropriate referents
in their environment?
33.
How
might children's overextensions of new words be explained
in terms of (a) their bias toward assuming that all nouns
are common nouns, (b) learning based on features of the referent,
and (c) their desire to communicate about entities for which
they have no label?
34.
What evidence indicates that children use syntax to understand
sentences even before they can speak in multiword sentences?
35.
What
evidence indicates that young children's grammatical constructions
are based on their knowledge of rules and do not result from
simple mimicry?
36.
How
did Chomsky link the study of grammar to psychology? What
did he mean by a language-acquisition device?
37.
What
evidence supports the view that grammar is learned more readily
in early childhood than later in life?
38.
What
special aspects of the LASS in our culture may help infants
acquire language? What light has been shed on the LASS by
cross-cultural research?
39.
What
LASS was supplied for the bonobo Kanzi? What are Kanzi's (and
other apes') linguistic accomplishments and limitations to
date?
40.
Why
must thought and language develop, and how can this chapter
be reviewed by considering the innate foundations and social
supports for development?
What
kinds of conflicts form the basis for Erikson's stages, and
what are the consequences of positive or negative resolution
of a given conflict?
2.
How
do the writings of Bowlby and Konner reflect an application
of Darwinian thinking to issues of social development?
3.
How
might the cultural perspective provide an alternative explanation
of Erikson's stages?
4.
How
does Bronfenbrenner's social ecology theory explain why any
specific aspect of the immediate environment can produce different
effects on children in different cultures?
5.
How
have Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development
influenced ideas about social development? How can the three
perspectives--biological, cultural, and cognitive--be combined?
6.
How
did Harlow assess infant monkeys' attachment to surrogate
mothers, and what did he find?
7.
According
to Bowlby, what infant behaviors indicate strong attachment,
and why would these have come about through natural selection?
8.
From
an evolutionary perspective, why does attachment strengthen
at about 6 to 8 months of age, and why does perception of
the mother's face become especially important at this time?
9.
How
does the strange-situation test assess the security of attachment?
What are some limitations of this measure?
10.
What
early caregiver behaviors are predictive of secure attachment?
How do Bowlby and Ainsworth interpret the correlations, and
how else might they be interpreted?
11.
What
evidence supports Ainsworth's and Bowlby's theory that caregivers'
responsiveness and warmth promote secure attachment?
12.
What
evidence supports the theory that infant attachment affects
subsequent emotional and social development, and what are
the limitations of that evidence?
13.
How
do adults in different cultures justify their sleeping or
not sleeping with their young children? What evidence suggests
that co-sleeping may be beneficial?
14.
How
might our culture's typical sleeping arrangements explain
infants' attachments to blankets?
15.
What
observations suggest that hunter-gatherers are highly indulgent
toward infants? What parenting styles distinguish the !Kung,
Efe, and Aka?
16.
What
evidence suggests that responsiveness to infants' needs and
desires does not spoil them? How might indulgence of infants
be related to interdependence and to living in extended families?
17.
What
evidence suggests that young children naturally enjoy giving,
and how does one culture use that enjoyment for prosocial
ends?
18.
How
might the capacity for empathy change the nature of the child's
giving and helping, and what evidence suggests that this capacity
develops during infancy?
19.
What
roles might social referencing, temperament, and the capacity
for guilt play in the emergence of restraint and compliance?
How might guilt derive from empathy?
20.
What
are Hoffman's three categories of discipline, and why does
he favor the category called induction?
21.
How
did Baumrind classify parents' discipline styles into three
types, and how do her results support Hoffman's theory?
22.
Why
is caution needed in interpreting correlational results as
evidence of parents' effects on children?
23.
How
did Groos explain play in evolutionary terms, and what evidence
supports Groos's theory?
24.
How
do observations in two Mexican villages illustrate the role
of play in the transmission of cultural skills and values
from one generation to the next, and how might play promote
new skills and knowledge?
25.
How
do observations in two Mexican villages illustrate the role
of play in the transmission of cultural skills and values
from one generation to the next, and how might play promote
new skills and knowledge? 25. In Vygotsky's view, how does
play help children acquire a conscious understanding of rules
and social roles and help them learn to control their own
behavior?
26.
What
unique features of age-mixed play may make it particularly
valuable to children's development?
27.
How
do observations at a particular school suggest that age-mixed
play can be a powerful vehicle of education?
28.
In
our culture, what are some ways by which girls and boys are
treated differently by adults, and how might such treatment
promote different developmental consequences?
29.
What
relationships have been observed, across cultures, between
the differential treatment of girls and boys and the adult
roles available for men and women?
30.
How
do children mold themselves according to their understanding
of gender differences?
31.
Why,
according to some research findings, do preschool girls often
withdraw from preschool boys in play? Later in childhood why
might boys avoid playing with girls more than the reverse?
32.
Why
can girls' and boys' peer groups be thought of as separate
subcultures, and why might this idea be an exaggeration?
33.
What
are two reasons why adolescence is longer today in our culture
than in times past or in some other cultures?
34.
What
typically is the nature of the so-called adolescent rebellion
against parents?
35.
How
have psychologists attempted to account for adolescents' heightened
recklessness and violence in terms of (a) characteristics
of the adolescent's mind, (b) society's limited adult roles
for young people, (c) adolescents' concern for acceptance
by their peers, and (d) the possible evolutionary function
of such behavior?
36.
How
did Kohlberg assess moral reasoning, how can his stages be
described as the successive broadening of one's social perspective,
and how does his theory explain adolescent idealism?
37.
What
conclusions were drawn from a study of exceptionally morally
committed young people residing in a particular impoverished
community?
38.
How
do societal attitudes contribute to problems in adolescents'
sexual relationships? How might the persistent double standard
influence males' and females' responses on surveys of sexual
activity?
39.
How
is the sex difference in desire for uncommitted sex explained
by the evolutionary theory of parental investment?
40.
How
can sexual restraint and promiscuity be understood as adaptive
strategies to different life conditions, for both sexes? What
evidence suggests that the presence or absence of a father
at home in childhood may tip the balance toward one strategy
or the other?
41.
How
is romantic love like infant attachment, and what evidence
suggests continuity in attachment quality between infancy
and adulthood?
42.
What
are some characteristics of happily married couples? In what
ways might happy marriage depend even more on the husband's
capacity to adjust than on the wife's?
43.
What
is occcupational self-direction, and what effects does it
have on workers and their children?
44.
What
was found in a study of husbands' and wives' emotional states
in work at home and out of home, and how was this result explained?
45.
How
does Carstensen's theory of aging differ from the earlier
disengagement and activity theories, and what observations
are explained by her theory?
46.
What
two themes that have run throughout the chapter are proposed
as vehicles around which to organize a review?
What
are two reasons for social psychologists' focus on biases
in person perception?
2.
Why
is the process of attribution central to social-psychological
theories about person perception?
3.
According
to the logic outlined by Kelley, when should an attribution
be made to the person and when should it be made to the situation?
4.
What
evidence supports the existence of a person bias in attributions,
and why is the bias often called the "fundamental attribution
error"?
5.
What
conditions seem to promote a person bias or a situation bias,
and how did an experiment demonstrate the effects of these
conditions?
6.
What
are some evidence that the person bias may be partly a product
of Western culture?
7.
What
are two theories as to why people more frequently make person
attributions about others than about themselves, and what
is some evidence for each?
8.
How
can a preexisting schema bias interpretations of a person's
behavior, and how was such an effect demonstrated in an experiment
at MIT? Why do first impressions often resist change?
9.
How
have researchers documented biasing effects of (a) physical
attractiveness and (b) facial maturity on the attributions
that people make about a person?
10.
How
might a sex difference in facial features contribute to perceived
psychological differences between women and men?
11.
What
is the distinction among public, private, and implicit stereotypes,
and how do psychologists identify implicit stereotypes?
12.
How
have researchers shown that stereotypes can lead to prejudice
and discrimination even in the absence of conscious prejudice?
What different roles do automatic and controlled mental processes
play in reactions to stereotyped individuals?
13.
What
is some evidence that beliefs about a person or a group can
affect that person or group in such a way as to become a self-fulfilling
prophesy?
14.
What
evidence in contemporary psychology supports, and delimits,
Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self?
15.
What
might lead us to develop multiple self-concepts, and why might
they be useful?
16.
What
is some evidence that people construct a self-concept by comparing
themselves with a reference group and that a change in reference
group can alter self-esteem?
17.
How
might the better-than-average phenomenon be explained by (a)
biased feedback from others, (b) people's differing criteria
of success, and (c) the self-serving attributional bias?
18.
What
evidence suggests that the self-enhancing biases observed
in Western culture may not characterize people everywhere?
19.
What
value might lie in our flexible ability to think of ourselves
in terms of both personal and social identities?
20.
How
does the distinction between social identity and personal
identity help explain (a) the two opposing effects that our
group-mates' excellent performance can have on our self-esteem,
and (b) extensions of the self-serving bias to attributions
about our group-mates?
21.
How
does Triandis characterize individualist and collectivist
cultures, and what differences have been found between the
two in people's self-descriptions?
22.
What
are four different functions that attitudes might serve?
23.
What
evidence led Schwartz to conclude that values can be characterized
by a universal structure pertaining to basic human social
needs? What are the two dimensions of that structure, and
what cross-cultural difference did Schwartz observe?
24.
What
is some evidence that people's values can be used to predict
their behavior?
25.
How
did a long-term study at Bennington College and follow-up
studies of Bennington graduates illustrate the role of social
forces in attitude change?
26.
How
does the cognitive dissonance theory explain people's attraction
to some information and avoidance of other information?
27.
How
does the cognitive dissonance theory explain why people are
more confident about a choice just after they have made it
than just before?
28.
How
does the cognitive dissonance theory explain why people who
behave in a manner contrary to their attitude are likely to
change their attitude?
29.
How
have researchers identified three conditions that increase
the likelihood that the insufficient-justification effect
will occur?
30.
How
did an early study demonstrate attitude-behavior inconsistency?
31.
How
can the presence of a mirror increase attitude-behavior consistency?
According to Fazio, what kinds of attitudes are most likely
to be recalled at appropriate times to help control behavior?
32.
According
to the theory of planned behavior, what two kinds of thoughts
might inhibit people from behaving according to their attitudes?
33.
How
do advertisers use classical conditioning to influence our
attitudes, and how did one experiment demonstrate that classical
conditioning can influence attitudes without conscious thought?
34.
What
are some examples of decision rules that people use with minimal
thought to evaluate messages?
35.
How
did an experiment support the idea that people tend to reserve
systematic thought for messages that are personally relevant
to them and to use decision rules for other messages?
36.
How
might a review of this chapter be organized around the four
themes proposed at the chapter's outset?
By
what general means do emotions contribute to social life?
3.
In
general, how might a person's emotional expressions help promote
his or her welfare within a group?
4.
What
evidence suggests that the smile of happiness is a social
signal?
5.
What
is the value, for group life, of the spread of sadness, anger,
fear, and laughter from one person to another? How might emotional
contagion figure into the rise of a group leader?
6.
What
differing functions are proposed for (a) guilt, (b) shame,
and (c) embarrassment; and what evidence supports each proposed
function?
7.
When
is it safe to express pride? What functions may be served
by (a) the expression and (b) the feeling of pride?
8.
What
is the sociometer theory of self-esteem, and what evidence
supports the theory?
9.
How
does the concept of social pressure figure into Lewin's field
theory of behavior and Ajzen's theory of planned behavior?
10.
According
to Latane's social impact theory, what general factors increase
and decrease the amount of social pressure a person experiences?
11.
How
do the theatrical and political metaphors differ from each
other in their portrayal of the purpose of impression management?
According to the latter, why do we want to look "good"?
12.
What
evidence suggests that people are concerned with impressing
new acquaintances more than close friends, and dating partners
more than married partners? How do these differences make
sense in terms of the functions of impression management?
13.
What
differences have been observed between people who score high
and those who score low on the self-monitoring test? How might
these be understood in terms of differing lifestyles?
14.
How
might cultural expectations promote different impression-management
styles in Western and Eastern cultures?
15.
How
does Zajonc's theory use the construct of arousal to explain
the effects of an audience on performance? According to the
theory, why are some performances improved and others worsened
by an audience? What further evidence suggests that the arousal
stems from evaluation anxiety?
16.
How
do studies of social loafing and deindividuation illustrate
the value of accountability, self-consciousness, and concern
for impressions?
17.
What
are two classes of reasons why people tend to conform to examples
set by others?
18.
How
did Asch demonstrate that a tendency to conform can lead people
to disclaim the evidence of their own eyes?
19.
What
evidence led Asch to conclude that conformity in his experiments
was caused more by normative than by informational influences?
20.
What
valuable effects can a single nonconformist have on others
in the group?
21.
How
can the failure of multiple bystanders to help a person in
need be explained as an example of conformity stemming from
both informational and normative influences?
22.
How
has group polarization been demonstrated, and what are some
natural social circumstances in which it is likely to occur?
23.
How
might group polarization be explained in terms of (a) informational
and (b) normative influences?
24.
How
did Janis explain some White House policy blunders with his
groupthink theory? How can the tendency toward groupthink
be countered?
25.
How
can the four-walls and the foot-in-the-door sales techniques
be explained in terms of cognitive dissonance?
26.
How
can the effectiveness of pregiving be explained in terms of
the reciprocity norm? What evidence supports the theory that
pregiving operates through a means opposite to that of the
foot-in-the-door technique?
27.
How
can an understanding of psychological reactance help one gain
another's compliance?
28.
How
did Milgram demonstrate that a remarkably high percentage
of people would follow a series of orders to hurt another
person?
29.
Why
does Milgram's finding call for an explanation in terms of
the social situation rather than in terms of unique personality
characteristics of the subjects?
30.
How
might the high rate of obedience in Milgram's experiments
be explained in terms of the subjects' preexisting beliefs,
the experimenters' demeanor, the proximity of the experimenter,
the lack of a model for rebellion, and the incremental nature
of the task?
31.
How
has Milgram's research been criticized on grounds of ethics
and lack of similarity to real-world situations, and how has
the research been defended?
32.
What
are the defining characteristics of a social dilemma, and
why are such dilemmas critical to human survival?
33.
What
are the features of prisoner's dilemma games, and how do they
put each player into a social dilemma?
34.
Why
are players more likely to cooperate in an iterative (repeated)
prisoner's dilemma game than in a one-trial game?
35.
Why
was the TFT program so successful in Axelrod's prisoner's
dilemma tournaments?
36.
Logically,
why might we expect small groups to cooperate more than large
ones, and what evidence indicates that indeed they do?
37.
How
do real-life social dilemmas differ from laboratory games
with respect to the factors of accountability, reputation,
and reciprocity?
38.
How
do human emotions figure into social-dilemma payoffs in such
a way as to encourage mutual cooperation and discourage defection?
39.
What
is some evidence that social identity can lead to helping
others even in the absence of reciprocity?
40.
What
changes occurred within and between two groups of boys as
a result of intergroup competitions at a summer camp?
41.
How did Sherif and his colleagues succeed in promoting peace
between the two groups of boys?
42.
What
does history tell us about intergroup atrocities, and how
might psychological research complement historical research
in understanding them?
43.
What,
again, are the three general requirements of social life,
and how can each of the particular ideas discussed in the
chapter be related to one or more of these requirements?
What
is a trait, and how do traits differ from states?
2.
Why
is a trait considered to be a description rather than an explanation
of behavior?
3.
How
are surface traits inferred from behavior, and how are central
traits inferred from surface traits?
4.
How
did Cattell and Eysenck develop their trait theories, and
how do the two theories differ from each other?
5.
Why
is the Big-Five theory generally preferred over Cattell's
or Eysenck's today?
6.
How
do researchers assess the stability of traits over time, and
what, in general, have they found?
7.
What
are two ways to explain the increased stability of traits
after age 30?
8.
What
evidence indicates that personality tests are to some degree
valid? What are some examples of successful predictions based
on tests?
9.
Why
might personality differences be most apparent in novel situations
or life transitions?
10.
What
evidence supports Mischel's concept of situation-specific
dispositions?
11.
What
are two theories designed to explain physiologically the difference
between extroverts and introverts, and what evidence supports
each?
12.
How
can the continuity between infants' early style of reaction
to stimuli and later fearfulness be explained by both Eysenck's
and Gray's theories?
13.
How
have the twin and adoption methods (described in Chaptere
10) been used to assess the heritability of personality? What
evidence suggests that being raised in the same home does
not lead to an appreciable increase in similarity of personality?
14.
How
might variation in single genes influence personality, and
how has this been exemplified in a study of neuroticism?
15.
How
does an ultimate explanation of personality variability differ
from a proximate one?
16.
How
does an analogy to financial investment explain the value
of producing offspring who differ from one another in personality?
17.
How
might the availability of different niches help explain the
evolution of trait differences within a species, and how is
this illustrated in two experiments with pumpkinseed sunfish?
18.
How
might both heritable and nonheritable variation on the Big-Five
dimensions be explained in terms of alternative life strategies?
19.
What
are some ways by which the personality-forming experiences
of children raised in the same family may differ?
20.
How
might sibling contrast and split-parent identification be
useful in reducing sibling rivalry and diversifying parental
investment?
21.
What
differences between the niches of firstborn and later-born
children might be expected to produce personality differences?
What consistent birth-order differences in personality did
Sulloway find in his analyses of historical data and the results
of psychological studies?
22.
What
differences have researchers found between women and men on
the Big-Five traits?
23.
What
evidence suggests that gender alters the relationship between
personality and life satisfaction?
24.
How
might gender differences in personality be understood in terms
of the differing biological and cultural niches of males and
females?
25.
What
characteristics of the mind underlie personality differences
according to psychodynamic theories?
26.
How
is the concept of unconscious motivation illustrated by posthypnotic
suggestion?
27.
How
did Freud draw inferences about the content of his clients'
unconscious minds?
28.
Why,
according to Freud, are sex and aggression especially significant
drives in personality formation?
29.
What
drives or human needs provide a basis for personality differences
in (a) Horney's theory, (b) object relations theories, (c)
Adler's theory, and (d) Erikson's theory?
30.
How,
specifically, do repression, displacement, reaction formation,
projection, and rationalization each serve to defend against
anxiety?
31.
Under
what conditions are defenses likely to be adaptive or maladaptive?
32.
What
relationships did Vaillant find between defensive styles and
measures of life satisfaction?
33.
How
do social-cognitive theories differ, in general, from psychodynamic
theories?
34.
What,
in Rotter's research, predicted people's improvement or failure
to improve in laboratory tasks? How did this lead to Rotter's
concept of locus of control?
35.
What
sorts of behaviors correlate with an internal locus of control?
36.
How
does self-efficacy differ from locus of control?
37.
What
evidence supports the theory that high self-efficacy (a) predicts
high performance and (b) may help cause high performance?
38.
What
evidence supports the value of optimism, and through what
mechanism might optimism produce its good effects?
39.
What
seems to differentiate adaptive from maladaptive optimism
and adaptive from maladaptive pessimism?
40.
How,
in general, do humanistic theories differ from social-cognitive
theories? How does the concept of phenomenological reality
figure into humanistic theories?
41.
What
human drive is posited by Rogers's self theory?
42.
How
are research findings concerning people's use of medical advice
consistent with Rogers's theory?
43.
What
is Maslow's theory about the relationship among various human
needs, and how might the theory be reconciled with an evolutionary
perspective?
44.
How
is the life-story conception of personality consistent with
the humanistic theorists' focus on phenomenology and a holistic
approach to the person?
45.
How
does the life-story approach to personality differ from the
trait approach in its conclusions about the modifiability
of personality in adulthood?
46.
In
what ways are psychodynamic, humanistic, and social-cognitive
theories all limited by their focus on a nonrepresentative
sample of humanity?
47.
What
two general themes are proposed for organizing a review of
the specific ideas of the chapter?
How
is the concept of mental disorder defined by the American
Psychiatric Association, and what ambiguities lie in that
definition?
2.
What
does reliability mean with reference to a diagnostic system,
and how did the developers of recent versions of the DSM strive
to increase reliability?
3.
How
can the validity of the DSM be improved through research and
further revisions?
4.
What
are some negative consequences of labeling a person as mentally
disordered, and what is recommended as a partial solution?
5.
How
do the biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral, and
sociocultural perspectives differ from each other in their
accounts of the origins of mental disorders? What kinds of
terms does each perspective bring to the task of describing
disorders?
6.
How
do the examples of anorexia and bulimia illustrate the value
of the sociocultural perspective?
7.
How
can the causes of mental disorders be categorized into three
types?
8.
From
the sociocultural perspective, what are three possible ways
to account for sex differences in the prevalence of specific
mental disorders?
9.
How
can the onset of generalized anxiety disorder be explained
in terms of predisposing and precipitating causes?
10.
What
evidence links phobias to normal fears, and how might phobias
be explained in terms of learning, evolution, and culture?
11.
How
is an obsessive-compulsive disorder similar to a phobia?
12.
What
evidence links obsessive-compulsive disorder with excessive
neural activity in a portion of the basal ganglia of the brain?
13.
What
learned thought pattern might be a maintaining cause of panic
disorder?
14.
How
does posttraumatic stress disorder differ from other anxiety
disorders?
15.
What
sorts of conditions may be particularly conducive to posttraumatic
stress disorder?
16.
How
does depression differ from generalized anxiety?
17.
What
is some evidence for and against the monoamine theory of depression?
18.
How
did a study of twins provide evidence that genetic predisposition
for depression may alter one's response to stressful experiences?
19.
Why
should we be somewhat skeptical about interpreting correlations
between stressful life events and depression in cause-effect
terms? What sorts of studies seem to provide the best evidence
that stressful events can help cause depression?
20.
How
might moderate depression be interpreted as an adaptive response
to loss?
21.
According
to the hopelessness theory, what patterns of thinking predispose
a person for depression? What is some evidence for and against
the theory?
22.
How
can depression be depicted as a vicious triangle, and how
do different approaches to treating depression correspond
with the triangle's corners?
23.
How
does SAD differ from other varieties of depression? What evidence
links the disorder to the shortened period of daylight?
24.
How
are manic states experienced, and what is some evidence linking
mild manic (hypomanic) episodes to heightened creativity?
25.
How
did Freud interpret conversion disorders? Why are somatoform
disorders in general and conversion disorders in particular
much affected by culture?
26.
How
did a study of widows and widowers provide evidence for an
effect of psychological state on medical condition? What are
possible mechanisms for such effects?
27.
How
did two heart specialists find evidence for their hypothesis
that a set of behaviors designated Type A promotes heart disease?
How have subsequent studies altered our understanding of the
psychological factors that promote heart disease?
28.
What
is some evidence that one's emotional state can alter the
chance of catching a code and that this may be mediated by
effects on the immune system?
29.
From
an evolutionary perspective, why might psychological distress
inhibit immune function?
30.
What
are three classes of effects that psychoactive drugs can have
on the brain, and how are they exemplified by effects of alcohol?
31.
How
do behavioral theorists describe addiction in terms of conditioning,
and how do cognitive theorists describe it in terms of learned
expectancies?
32.
What
is some evidence that cultural traditions affect the prevalence
of alcoholism?
33.
What
questions have some researchers raised concerning the prevalence
of dissociative identity disorder?
34.
What
is some evidence that links dissociative identity disorder
with childhood abuse coupled, perhaps, with an inborn ability
to dissociate?
35.
What
are the main classes of symptoms of schizophrenia?
36.
How
have researchers attempted to classify subtypes of schizophrenia
according to symptoms?
37.
How
did a classic study in Denmark provide evidence for the heritability
of schizophrenia? In general, how do the varying rates of
concordance for schizophrenia among different classes of relatives
support the contention that heredity affects susceptibility
for the disorder?
38.
What
evidence suggests that physical traumas or malnutrition prior
to or at birth can enhance one's susceptibility to schizophrenia?
39.
What
early evidence supported the dopamine theory of schizophrenia?
What evidence today lends doubt to the simple form of the
dopamine theory?
40.
What
average differences have been observed between children who
later develop schizophrenia and children who do not?
41.
What
evidence suggests, tentatively, that the family environment
may promote schizophreniclike symptoms in those who are genetically
predisposed for the disorder but not in those who are not
genetically predisposed?
42.
How
has expressed emotion by family members been linked to relapse
of schizophrenia?
43.
What
cross-cultural difference has been observed in rate of recovery
from schizophrenia, and what are some possible explanations
for that difference?
How has
Western society's response to people with serious mental disorders
changed since the Middle Ages? What were the goals of the
moral-treatment and deinstitutionalization movements?
2.
How did
Rosenhan study the experiences of patients in mental hospitals,
and what did he find?
3.
How did
Paul and Lentz show that people who had been long-term mental
patients could profit from a therapeutic environment that
was quite different from the standard hospital treatment?
4.
Where
and from whom can mental health services be obtained?
5.
According
to a survey conducted in the United States, how does the obtaining
of mental health care vary with sex, education, race, and
income?
6.
What
are the advantages of interviews and objective questionnaires
for assessing a client's condition?
7.
How was
the MMPI developed, and why was it revised? What is the purpose
of its clinical, content, and validity scales?
8.
Why and
how do clinicians use projective tests?
9.
How does
behavioral monitoring contribute to both assessment and treatment?
10
What
is the purpose of neuropsychological tests such as the Halstead-Reitan
battery?
11.
What
is known about the mechanisms, effectiveness, and limitations
of drugs used to treat schizophrenia, depression, bipolar
disorder, and generalized anxiety?
12.
Under
what conditions and how is ECT used to treat depression? Why
is it often given just to the right hemisphere?
13.
Why are
prefrontal lobotomies no longer performed, and why are less
drastic forms of psychosurgery occasionally performed?
14.
In Freud's
theory, how do childhood experiences contribute to mental
disorder?
15.
How did
Freud use people's free associations, dreams, and "mistakes"
as routes to learning about their unconscious minds?
16.
According
to Freud's theory, how do resistance and transference contribute
to the therapeutic process?
17.
According
to Freud's theory, how do insights into the patient's unconscious
conflicts effect a cure?
18.
How does
the case of the Rat Man exemplify Freud's concepts of precipitating
and predisposing causes, and how did free association, dream
analysis, and transference contribute to Freud's analysis
of the Rat Man?
19.
How do
modern variations of psychodynamic psychotherapy differ from
Freud's psychoanalysis?
20.
What
is the primary goal of humanistic psychotherapy?
21.
In Rogers's
humanistic therapy what is the role of the client and what
is the role of the therapist?
22.
Why are
empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness essential
aspects of Rogers's approach to psychotherapy?
23.
How did
Rogers use empathy, positive regard, and genuineness to help
a man who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia?
24.
How does
cognitive therapy differ from psychodynamic therapy and from
humanistic therapy?
25.
How does
Ellis explain people's emotions in terms of their beliefs?
26.
How does
Beck's treatment of a depressed woman illustrate his approach
to identifying and correcting maladaptive, automatic patterns
of thought?
27.
How and
why has behavior therapy become increasingly similar to cognitive
therapy, and in what respects have the two always been similar?
28.
What
is the theoretical rationale for exposure treatments to eliminate
fears?
29.
How
do the exposure treatments of systematic desensitization,
flooding, and exposure homework differ from one another?
30.
How can
maladaptive habits be interpreted in terms of operant conditioning
and eliminated by use of aversive stimuli?
31.
How
does the treatment of alcohol addiction with antabuse illustrate
a general limitation of aversion treatment?
32.
What
are the therapeutic uses of token economies, contingency contracts,
assertiveness training, and modeling?
33.
How might
the special value of the group be used in psychodynamic, humanistic,
and cognitive-behavioral group therapies?
34.
What
are some assumptions and practices of couple and family therapies?
35.
Why must
we rely on experiments rather than case studies to assess
the effectiveness of psychotherapy?
36.
How did
an experiment in Philadelphia demonstrate the effectiveness
of behavior therapy and psychoanalytic psychotherapy?
37.
What
are four general conclusions from therapy outcome experiments?
38.
What
is some evidence that the most important ingredients of psychotherapy
may be the offering of support and hope?
