ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Interviews Billey, Wilford, former Navajo Code Talker. Interview by author, 22 November 1992, Farmington, New Mexico. Mr. Billey, a well educated Navajo, was very positive about his experiences in the Marines and as a Code Talker. He feels the Code Talkers helped shorten the war. After an extensive communication school, where he had been subjected to a great deal of memorization, he was sent to Tarawa on a transport ship and was later assigned to a destroyer escort for a trip to Saipan where the resistance was fierce. He also served in Okinawa and Nagasaki, Japan. Frank, Bennis M., head of Marine Corp Oral History program at Pentagon. Telephone interview, 29 January 1993. This informant discussed the top secret classifications of the Navajo code. He stated that there is no documentation in Marine Archives of the Japanese being able to decipher every American code, but it was a known fact during World War II that Japanese were deciphering many American codes. He acknowledged that the Navajos developed their own codes. He stated that although the Navajos did nothing spectacular, their contribution was unique. 18 19 Foster, Harold, former Navajo Code Talker and present Vice- President of the Navajo Code Talkers Association. Interview by author, 23 November 1992, Window Rock, Arizona. Mr. Foster recounted his education at reservation boarding schools. After Marine boot camp, he went to communication school for eight weeks where he learned to handle telephone and radio equipment blindfolded. He saw action on Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Betio, Saipan, and Iwo Jima with the Fifth Marine Division. On Iwo Jima his group sent 800 messages in forty-eight hours without a mistake. He was radio chief on the island for the thirty-two days. This informant said the Navajo language won the war. Gorman, Carl, former Navajo Code Talker. Interview by telephone, 4 February 1993. Carl Gorman was one of the originators of the Navajo code for the Marines. Later in the war he trained new Code Talker recruits. He discussed how the code was created, relating specific examples of how they coded the words from English to Navajo. Dr. Gorman told of many wonderful experiences that had taken place since World War II. He credits the Code Talker Program with opening many doors for him. Smith, Albert, former Navajo Code Talker and present President of the Code Talker Association. Interview by author, 21 November 1992, Gallup, New Mexico. I met with Mr. Smith at the Code Talker Association headquarters in Gallup, New Mexico. He showed me a lot of useful memorabilia from the war, including actual radios used in transmitting the code. He discussed the importance of the Code Talker Association in keeping members in touch with each other. He proudly discussed the accomplishments of various Code Talker members. Tanner, Maurice, trader to the Navajos in the Checkerboard area of New Mexico. Interview by telephone, 10 January 1993. Maurice Tanner told of the recruiting procedure directed by the Marines. He also disclosed information pertaining to the primitiveness of the Navajo reservation during the 1940's. Another fact he revealed was related to the privateness of the Navajo people especially when it relates with war. 20 Taylor, Miriam, former Indian trader. Interview @y author, 22 November 1992, Farmington, New Mexico. Miriam Taylor told of the recruiting process conducted by the Marines. Her husband, Merrill, was one of only twenty-eight non-Navajos who spoke the Navajo language at the outbreak of the war. Merrill wanted to join the Navajo Code Talker Program but was not accepted into the Marines because he was not a native Navajo. She also related information about the' culture of the Navajo people. Willetto, Dennis, former Marine. Interview by author, 22 November 1992, Crownpoint, New Mexico. Dennis related his childhood and youth experiences in boarding schools and life in the checkerboard area around Torreon with his grandfather. He talked about his experiences in Vietnam. He was very candid about the religious peyote ceremony held for him before he went into the Marine Corps. When he returned from the war, the Enemy Way Ceremony was held for him. This is a cleansing ceremony for soldiers encountering the enemy. His main contribution to this interview was his feelings about going to war. Willetto, Frank Chee, former Navajo Code Talker. Interview by author, 22 November, Crownpoint New Mexico. This informant argued that the Code Talkers have not received the recognition they deserved because they not only contributed their lives but also their culture to the war effort. He related his educational background at reservation schools along with some work experiences. After basic training, he attended extensive radio training. He was sent to the Marshall Islands, Saipan, and Tinian. On Saipan he felt he was protected by the Great Spirit when he was captured by the U. S. Army soldiers who thought he was Japanese. He realizes the Code Talkers were heroes and feels they shortened the war by two years. Young, Robert, linguistics professor at University of New Mexico. Interview by author, 21 November 1992, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Robert Young helped make the final selection of the Navajo Code Talker recruits to see if they had sufficient knowledge of both Navajo and English. He told of the origin of the Navajo language, why the language is so hard to learn, and the great importance the Navajo language played in the war. This source gave useful information about Phillip Johnston, his colleague who originated the concept of the Navajo Code Talkers. 21 Unpublished Sources Link, Martin. We Talked Navalo. Photocopy.(from office of Peterson Zah' Navajo Tribal President), 14 August 1992. This is a pamphlet that was handed out in conjunction with the Navajo Code Talkers Golden Anniversary Celebration. It had a time line of important events in the Navajo Code Talker Program in addition to a map of the battles in the Pacific Theatre and a list of contributions that various Code Talkers have made. Navajo Code Talker Dictionary. Original, compiled in 1942. In possession of Mr. Harold Foster, Ft. Wingate Arizona. This is the original Code Talker dictionary and coded alphabet handed out to new Navajo recruits at Camp Pendleton. It presents every term the Code Talkers needed in their war efforts against the Japanese. Willetto, Dennis. "Enemy Way: The Purpose to Exist." N.d. This is a research paper written by a Navajo student which explained the Enemy Way, an ancient Navajo ceremony. It explains the origin of the ceremony and why it is performed. This presents an insight into the lives and the minds of the Navajo people. Young, Robert. "The Navajo Verb System: Summer Seminar at Navajo Community College: 1992.11 Photocopy. This paper describes the components of the Navajo language. It explains the roots, prefixes, and verbs of the language and gives charts on how the Navajo language is set up. It also recites a brief history of the origins of the Navajo language. 22 manuscripts Akee, Dan. "Duke Oral History Collection, 1978,11 1159, Manuscripts Division, Special Collections, University of Utah Marriott Library, Salt Lake City, Utah. This manuscript is a transcribed interview with Code Talker Dan Akee. He relates wartime stories of his experiences in the Marshall Islands during World War II. He also tells of how the code Talkers earned the respect of the other soldiers by repeatedly saving lives in various situations. McCabe, William. "Duke Oral History Collection, 1978,11 1171, Manuscripts Division, Special Collections, University of Utah Marriott Library, Salt Lake City, Utah. This manuscript is an interview with Code Talker William McCabe. He told a story of the original Code Talkers being smuggled into Camp Elliot in the middle of the night. The leadership of setting up the code fell on his shoulders by default because of the lack of authority surrounding the original twenty-nine Code Talkers. They Talked Navgdo: A Record of-the Unit d States-Marine Corps Navaio Code Talkers. Photocopy (from Marine Corps Headquarters). April 7-8, 1971 ' This is a record of the Code Talkers' reunion in 1971. It gives a thorough background of the Navajo Code Talkers as well as relating events of the reunion. It also includes personal experiences of several Code Talkers. There are numerous photographs of the Code Talkers and a copy of the Marine Corps Hymn in Navajo. Public Documents Headquarters Marine Corps, History and Museums Divisionst Fact Sheet. "Navajo Code Talkers." This fact sheet from the Marine Corps gives the official details about the secret operation of the Navajo Code Talkers. It cites all of their many accomplishments and gives credit to the Code Talkers for saving many American lives as well as ending the war sooner. Great recognition and appreciation is given to the Code Talkers stating they should be honored by all Americans. 23 Press Release on the Navajo Code Talkers. Joint iublic Affairs Office. 15 September 1969. This press release is the first acknowledgement by the United States Government that the Navajo Code Talker program existed. Until this time, the government had this program top secret in hopes of using it at a later time. This seven page document relays information on why the code was needed and how it was set up. It tells of the astounding war results once the code was put into effect. It gives credit to the Navajo Code Talkers for aiding with victories at Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Iwo Jima. U.S. President. Proclamation. National Navaio CodLe Talk rs --T --Lke Day. 28 July 1982. This proclamation declares August 14, 1982, National Navajo Code Talker Day. It gives the utmost respect to these former Marines who so willingly contributing their language, a precious commodity that was of invaluable use. It also tells of the Choctaw, Chippewa, Creek, Sioux, and other tribes who used their tribal language as effective battlefield codes. Books Begay, Keats, and Agnes Begay, et. al. Navajos and World War II. Tsaile, Navajo Nation, Arizona: Navajo Community College, 1977. This book contains a transcript of an interview with Cozy Stanley Brown, a Navajo Code Talker. He tells why he joined the Marines, as well as how he was recruited. He describes a typical day's work for him, how he transmitted messages, and his encounters with the enemy, including how he scalped a Japanese. He tells about a Navajo ceremony that was performed for him as he left for war in order to provide protection. An Enemy Way ceremony was performed to cleanse him of bad spirits when he returned home. 24 Kawano, Kenji. Warriors Navalo Code Talkers. gstaff, Fla Arizona: Northland Publishing-, 1990. Kenji Kawano is a photographic journalist who came to Window Rock, Arizona, and ended up staying to photograph and interview as many Navajo Code Talkers as possible. This book has pictures of the Code Talkers he interviewed and of the battles in which they served. In an introduction, Bennis Frank, head of the United States Marine Corp Oral History Program at the Pentagon, has the utmost respect and admiration for the Code Talkers, giving them credit for saving many Marine lives because of their efficiency. This book was also an excellent source for photographs of young Navajo Code Talkers in combat. Newspapers "Code Talkers Earned Honor." The Albucruercrue ournal, 20 September 1992, A6. This newspaper article stresses the importance the Code Talkers played in the war. The author ponders why the Code Talkers' honor was so belated. He quotes many experts as saying the Code Talkers saved many lives in World War II and made the war end sooner. "Code Talkers to Talk." 1bg__LFarmincrtonL New Mexicol Daily Times, 16 September 1992, A2. This article is in reference to an official message sent from Arizona to Washington using the coded Navajo language. Code Talkers in Phoenix sent a message of peace to thirty-five Code Talkers in Washington D.C. who were attending the unveiling of a museum display honoring the Code Talkers in the Pentagon. "National Navajo Code Talkers Day." Henderson Hall News, 13 August 1982, Al. The Henderson Hall News is a newspaper that goes to all Marines. This article informs the Marines of the special Navajos who helped win World War II. This report came in conjunction with President Ronald Reagan declaring August 14, 1982, National code Talker Day. It quotes a Marine general as saying these Marines played a crucial role in winning the war in the Pacific.