Interviews

       Foster, Harold, former Navajo Code Talker and present Vice-
                     President of the Navajo Code Talkers Association.
                     Interview by author, 23 November 1992, Window Rock,
                     Arizona.
                          Mr. Foster recounted his education at reservation
                     boarding schools. After Marine boot camp, he went to
                     communication school for eight weeks where he learned
                     to handle telephone and radio equipment blindfolded.
                     He saw action on Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Betio, Saipan,
                     and Iwo Jima with the Fifth Marine Division. On Iwo
                     Jima his group sent 800 messages in forty-eight hours
                     without a mistake. He was radio chief on the island
                     for the thirty-two days. This informant said the
                     Navajo language won the war.

             Frank, Bennis M., head of Marine Corp Oral History program
                    at Pentagon. Telephone interview, 29 January 1993.
                         This informant discussed the top secret
                    classifications of the Navajo code. He stated that
                    there is no documentation in Marine Archives of the
                    Japanese being able to decipher every American code,
                    but it was a known fact during World War II that
                    Japanese were deciphering many American codes. He
                    acknowledged that the Navajos developed their own
                    codes. He stated that although the Navajos did nothing
                    spectacular, their contribution was unique.

               Gorman, Carl, former Navajo Code Talker. Interview by
                     telephone, 4 February 1993.
                          Carl Gorman was one of the originators of the
                     Navajo code for the Marines. Later in the war he
                     trained new Code Talker recruits. He discussed how the
                     code was created, relating specific examples of how
                     they coded the words from English to Navajo. Dr.
                     Gorman told of many wonderful experiences that had
                     taken place since World War II. He credits the Code
                     Talker Program with opening many doors for him.

             Smith, Albert, former Navajo Code Talker and present
                     President of the Code Talker Association. Interview by
                     author, 21 November 1992, Gallup, New Mexico.
                         I met with Mr. Smith at the Code Talker
                     Association headquarters in Gallup, New Mexico. He
                     showed me a lot of useful memorabilia from the war,
                     including actual radios used in transmitting the code.
                     He discussed the importance of the Code Talker
                     Association in keeping members in touch with each
                     other. He proudly discussed the accomplishments of
                     various Code Talker members.

            Tanner, Maurice, trader to the Navajos in the Checkerboard
                     area of New Mexico. Interview by telephone, 10 January
                     1993.
                        Maurice Tanner told of the recruiting procedure
                     directed by the Marines. He also disclosed information
                     pertaining to the primitiveness of the Navajo
                     reservation during the 1940's. Another fact he
                     revealed was related to the privateness of the Navajo
                     people especially when it relates with war.

              Taylor, Miriam, former Indian trader. Interview by author,
                     22 November 1992, Farmington, New Mexico.
                          Miriam Taylor told of the recruiting process
                     conducted by the Marines. Her husband, Merrill, was
                     one of only twenty-eight non-Navajos who spoke the
                     Navajo language at the outbreak of the war. Merrill
                     wanted to join the Navajo Code Talker Program but was
                     not accepted into the Marines because he was not a
                     native Navajo. She also related information about the'
                     culture of the Navajo people.

                Willetto, Dennis, former Marine. Interview by author, 22
                     November 1992, Crownpoint, New Mexico.
                          Dennis related his childhood and youth experiences
                     in boarding schools and life in the checkerboard area
                     around Torreon with his grandfather. He talked about
                     his experiences in Vietnam. He was very candid about
                     the religious peyote ceremony held for him before he
                     went into the Marine Corps. When he returned from the
                     war, the Enemy Way Ceremony was held for him. This is
                     a cleansing ceremony for soldiers encountering the
                     enemy. His main contribution to this interview was his
                     feelings about going to war.

             Willetto, Frank Chee, former Navajo Code Talker. Interview
                     by author, 22 November, Crownpoint New Mexico.
                         This informant argued that the Code Talkers have
                     not received the recognition they deserved because they
                     not only contributed their lives but also their culture
                     to the war effort. He related his educational
                     background at reservation schools along with some work
                     experiences. After basic training, he attended
                     extensive radio training. He was sent to the Marshall
                     Islands, Saipan, and Tinian. On Saipan he felt he was
                     protected by the Great Spirit when he was captured by
                     the U. S. Army soldiers who thought he was Japanese.
                     He realizes the Code Talkers were heroes and feels they
                     shortened the war by two years.

             Young, Robert, linguistics professor at University of New
                     Mexico. Interview by author, 21 November 1992,
                     Albuquerque, New Mexico.
                         Robert Young helped make the final selection of
                     the Navajo Code Talker recruits to see if they had
                     sufficient knowledge of both Navajo and English. He
                     told of the origin of the Navajo language, why the
                     language is so hard to learn, and the great importance
                     the Navajo language played in the war. This source
                     gave useful information about Phillip Johnston, his
                     colleague who originated the concept of the Navajo Code
                     Talkers.
                                          Unpublished Sources
 

                Link, Martin. We Talked Navajo. Photocopy.(from office of
                     Peterson Zah' Navajo Tribal President), 14 August 1992.
                          This is a pamphlet that was handed out in
                     conjunction with the Navajo Code Talkers Golden
                     Anniversary Celebration. It had a time line of
                     important events in the Navajo Code Talker Program in
                     addition to a map of the battles in the Pacific Theatre
                     and a list of contributions that various Code Talkers
                     have made.

             "Navajo Code Talker Dictionary." Original, compiled in 1942.
                     In possession of Mr. Harold Foster, Ft. Wingate
                     Arizona.
                         This is the original Code Talker dictionary and
                     coded alphabet handed out to new Navajo recruits at
                     Camp Pendleton. It presents every term the Code
                     Talkers needed in their war efforts against the
                     Japanese.

             Willetto, Dennis. "Enemy Way: The Purpose to Exist." N.d.
                         This is a research paper written by a Navajo
                     student which explained the Enemy Way, an ancient
                     Navajo ceremony. It explains the origin of the
                     ceremony and why it is performed. This presents an
                     insight into the lives and the minds of the Navajo
                     people.

              Young, Robert. "The Navajo Verb System: Summer Seminar at
                     Navajo Community College: 1992." Photocopy.
                        This paper describes the components of the Navajo
                     language. It explains the roots, prefixes, and verbs
                     of the language and gives charts on how the Navajo
                     language is set up. It also recites a brief history of
                     the origins of the Navajo language.

                Manuscripts

              McCabe, William. "Duke Oral History Collection, 1978," 1171,
                     Manuscripts Division, Special Collections, University
                     of Utah Marriott Library, Salt Lake City, Utah.
                          This manuscript is an interview with Code Talker
                     William McCabe. He told a story of the original Code
                     Talkers being smuggled into Camp Elliot in the middle
                     of the night. The leadership of setting up the code
                     fell on his shoulders by default because of the lack of
                     authority surrounding the original twenty-nine Code
                     Talkers.

                "They Talked Navajo: A Record of-the United States-Marine
                     Corps Navajo Code Talkers." Photocopy (from Marine
                     Corps Headquarters). April 7-8, 1971 .
                          This is a record of the Code Talkers' reunion in
                     1971. It gives a thorough background of the Navajo
                     Code Talkers as well as relating events of the reunion.
                     It also includes personal experiences of several Code
                     Talkers. There are numerous photographs of the Code
                     Talkers and a copy of the Marine Corps Hymn in Navajo.

                                               Public Documents
 

               Headquarters Marine Corps, History and Museums Divisionst
                     Fact Sheet. "Navajo Code Talkers."
                         This fact sheet from the Marine Corps gives the
                     official details about the secret operation of the
                     Navajo Code Talkers. It cites all of their many
                     accomplishments and gives credit to the Code Talkers
                     for saving many American lives as well as ending the
                     war sooner. Great recognition and appreciation is
                     given to the Code Talkers stating they should be
                     honored by all Americans.

                  Press Release on the Navajo Code Talkers. Joint Public
                       Affairs Office. 15 September 1969.
                            This press release is the first acknowledgement by
                       the United States Government that the Navajo Code
                       Talker program existed. Until this time, the
                       government had this program top secret in hopes of
                       using it at a later time. This seven page document
                       relays information on why the code was needed and how
                       it was set up. It tells of the astounding war results
                       once the code was put into effect. It gives credit to
                       the Navajo Code Talkers for aiding with victories at
                       Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Iwo Jima.

                U.S. President. Proclamation. National Navaio Code Talkers
                        Day. 28 July 1982.
                            This proclamation declares August 14, 1982,
                       National Navajo Code Talker Day. It gives the utmost
                       respect to these former Marines who so willingly
                       contributing their language, a precious commodity that
                       was of invaluable use.    It also tells of the Choctaw,
                       Chippewa, Creek, Sioux, and other tribes who used their
                       tribal language as effective battlefield codes.
 

                                                          Books

              Begay, Keats, and Agnes Begay, et. al. Navajos and World
                      War II. Tsaile, Navajo Nation, Arizona: Navajo
                      Community College, 1977.
                           This book contains a transcript of an interview
                      with Cozy Stanley Brown, a Navajo Code Talker. He
                      tells why he joined the Marines, as well as how he was
                      recruited. He describes a typical day's work for him,
                      how he transmitted messages, and his encounters with
                      the enemy, including how he scalped a Japanese. He
                      tells about a Navajo ceremony that was performed for
                      him as he left for war in order to provide protection.
                      An Enemy Way ceremony was performed to cleanse him of
                      bad spirits when he returned home.

                  Kawano, Kenji. Warriors Navajo Code Talkers. Flagstaff,
                       Arizona: Northland Publishing-, 1990.
                            Kenji Kawano is a photographic journalist who came
                       to Window Rock, Arizona, and ended up staying to
                       photograph and interview as many Navajo Code Talkers as
                       possible. This book has pictures of the Code Talkers
                       he interviewed and of the battles in which they served.
                       In an introduction, Bennis Frank, head of the United
                       States Marine Corp Oral History Program at the
                       Pentagon, has the utmost respect and admiration for the
                       Code Talkers, giving them credit for saving many Marine
                       lives because of their efficiency. This book was also
                       an excellent source for photographs of young Navajo
                       Code Talkers in combat.

                                                       Newspapers

                 "Code Talkers Earned Honor." The Albuquerque Journal, 20
                      September 1992, A6.
                           This newspaper article stresses the importance the
                      Code Talkers played  in the war. The author ponders why
                      the Code Talkers' honor was so belated. He quotes many
                      experts as saying the Code Talkers saved many lives in
                      World War II and made the war end sooner.

                "Code Talkers to Talk." The Farmington, New Mexico, Daily
                      Times, 16 September 1992, A2.
                           This article is in reference to an official
                      message sent from Arizona to Washington using the coded
                      Navajo language. Code Talkers in Phoenix sent a
                      message of peace to thirty-five Code Talkers in
                      Washington D.C. who were attending the unveiling of a
                      museum display honoring the Code Talkers in the
                      Pentagon.

              "National Navajo Code Talkers Day." Henderson Hall News, 13
                      August 1982, Al.
                          The Henderson Hall News is a newspaper that goes
                      to all Marines. This article informs the Marines of
                      the special Navajos who helped win World War II. This
                      report came in conjunction with President Ronald Reagan
                      declaring August 14, 1982, National code Talker Day.
                      It quotes a Marine general as saying these Marines
                      played a crucial role in winning the war in the
                      Pacific.

              "Sculpture Gets Dedicated to Navajo Code Talkers."
                     Farmington, New Mexico, Daily Times, 5 March 1989, B6.
                          This publication talks about the first sculpture
                     dedicated to the Navajo Code Talkers. It includes an
                     experience about the Navajo language saving many
                     people's lives on the island of Guam. It stresses the
                     influence the Navajo Code Talkers had on the islands of
                     Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal.

                Baca, Elmo. "Parade Honors Code Talkers." The Farmington.
                     New Mexico Daily Times.
                         This article came out in union with a parade and
                     reception honoring the Code Talkers in Gallup, New
                     Mexico. The reunion was the largest gathering of Code
                     Talkers since the war ended. This Article expresses
                     the pride the Navajo Nation and all Native American
                     veterans have for the momentous role the Code Talkers
                     played in the Pacific Theatre of World War II.

             Brenner, Malcolm. "Code Talkers Eye Inauguration." The
                     Farmington.New Mexico, Daily Times, 23 December 1992.
                         This article communicates the troubles the Code
                     Talker Association was having raising money for a trip
                     to Washington D.C. to march in the Inaugural Parade of
                     Bill Clinton. It also conveys the feelings of the
                     Navajos about keeping war experiences secret.

               Brown, Matthew S. "Memorial to Honor Navajo Code Talkers."
                     Desert News, 14 September 1992, Al-A2.
                         Emphasizing the massive role the Code Talkers
                     played in the Pacific Theatre, this article talks about
                     the Code Talker Program in detail. A quote from Major
                     Howard Conner, stating that were it not for the
                     Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima,
                     is included with this front page article. This story
                     was published in response to a Pentagon memorial
                     dedication recognizing the Code Talkers.

              King, Jodi A. "DOD Dedicates Code Talkers Display."
                     Pentagram, 24 September 1992, A3.
                        This article details a memorial that was dedicated
                     at the Pentagon for the Code Talkers. Navajo Tribal
                     President Peterson Zah expresses his appreciation for
                     these people. Senator John McCain of Arizona says the
                     code was so vital to the United States Marines that it
                     was kept a secret long after the war ended. This
                     memorial is the first formal dedication to the Navajo
                     Code Talkers.

                Locke, Patrice. "Code Talkers Hear Praise: Gallup  Honors
                     Navajos Whose Words Helped Win War." Albuguerque
                     Journal, 15 August 1992, Al, A9.
                          This article was in conjunction with a reception
                     and parade in honor of the Code Talkers. It affirms
                     the Navajo Code Talkers were the perfect example of old
                     traditions and new ideas working together. The article
                     also includes many facts and figures useful in
                     completing my paper.

             Marder, Murrey. "Navajo Code Talkers." Marine Corps
                     Gazette, September 1945, Al, A3.
                         This article, published immediately following the
                     battle of Iwo Jima, emphasizes the drastic and positive
                     results of the Navajo Code Talkers. It declares the
                     reason the Marines decided to use Navajo as a code was
                     a report stating the Navajo tribe was the only Indian
                     group in the United States not infested with German and
                     Japanese students during the 20 years prior to 1941.
                     It gives the Navajo Code Talkers credit for the taking
                     of Iwo Jima; without their help the battle could have
                     never have been won.

               Shebala, Marley. "One Man Remembers His Radio." Farmington
                     New Mexico, Daily Times, 2 December 1990, A8.
                         This article emphasizes a subject not often
                     referred to by the Code Talkers, their radios. It
                     tells of the effort and learning involved in using the
                     war time radios. This article also highlights the fact
                     that these Navajo boys had no idea of the impact they
                     had on history until the war was over.

              _________ "Pictorial Chronicles Code Talkers." The Farmington
                     Daily Times, 2 December 1990, A8.
                         This article talks about a pictorial book,
                     "Warriors-Navajo Code Talkers." It gives the facts
                     about the book and also documents the fact that the
                     Code Talkers gave their language and life to use in the
                     defense of their country.

                                            Television Segments

                Lewis, Steve, Kevin McGee, and Amy Rodgers, prods.
                     "Southwest Bus Tour: Window Rock." Narr. Joan Lunden,
                     Charles Gibson, and Spencer Christian. -Good Morning
                     America. ABC, New York, 16 November 1992.
                          This segment interviews the President of the
                     Navajo Code Talker Association along with three other
                     Navajo Code Talkers. They relate their personal
                     experiences in World War II. During the segment,
                     Peterson Zah, President of the Navajo Nation, is
                     interviewed. Charles Gibson and Joan Lunden take a
                     comprehensive look at the cultural traits of the
                     Navajos as well as scenery around the Navajo
                     Reservation.

             Smith, Herb, prod. "The Navajo Code Talkers." Narr. by
                     Allison Barlow. Eyewitness News at 6:00. KSL, Salt
                     Lake City, Utah, 7 December 1992.
                         This documentation about the Navajo Code Talkers
                     is very informative. It emphasizes the Navajo Code
                     Talkers' massive impact at the battle of Iwo Jima and
                     contains a personal interview with Harold Foster, radio
                     chief at the battle in which the Navajo Code Talkers
                     sent 800 messages in forty-eight hours without a single
                     mistake. It highlights the Navajo Code Talkers' lack
                     of publicity. It also stresses the positive effect of
                     the Code Talkers on the World War II.
 

               Secondary Sources

             Books

            Acrey, Bill P. Navajo History. Shiprock, New Mexico: The
                   Rio Grande Press, 1974.
                        This source discusses the importance the Navajo
                   Code Talkers played, not only in the Pacific Theatre of
                   World War II but also on their return to the Navajo
                   Nation. These Code Talkers came back from the war
                   having learned the importance of education, which their
                   elders had taught them was bad. They have tried to
                   instill this in the future generations of Navajos.

                Allen, T.D. Navahos  Five Five Fingers. Norman, Oklahoma:
                     University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
                          This book has information pertaining to the
                     influence other servicemen had on the Navajo Code
                     Talkers. Although Navajos were not made citizens   of
                     the United States until 1924, they were willing and
                     able to help serve in their country's war. This source
                     gives insight on why the Navajos were so willing to go
                     to war.

                Bailey, Garrick, and Roberta Gleen Bailey. A History of the
                     Navajos. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American
                     Research Papers, 1986.
                          This text emphasizes the loyalty of the Navajo
                     people. It states the Code Talkers symbolized the
                     Navajos' commitment to the American war effort in spite
                     of the way the United States Government had treated
                     them in the past. It explains why the Navajo Code
                     Talkers are some of the most honored men in the Navajo
                     Nation.

               Bernstein, Allison R. American Indians and World War II.
                     Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
                         This source explains why the Navajo language was
                     chosen as cryptograph in lieu of another Native
                     American language. It emphasizes the high level of
                     security surrounding the code, expounding on why the
                     government would not even tell the Code Talkers what
                     they were going to do or the important role they were
                     to play. It also states that the Code Talkers were
                     important in saving lives because they could translate,
                     transmit, and retranslate messages at a rapid rate.

             Buchanan, Russell. The United States and World War II,
                     vol. 2. New York: Harper and Row Publisherst 1964.
                         Although the publication of this book is 1964,
                     before the government released information on the
                     Navajo Code Talkers, it realizes the success the
                     Marines experienced on Iwo Jima was due in part to "The
                     Indian Marines who provided a baffling code for voice
                     transmissions of secret messages."

             Dunlay, Thomas W.  Wolves For The Blue Soldiers. Lincoln:
                     University of Nebraska Press, 1982.
                         This book gave valuable information pertaining to
                     Indians going off to war. It explained in detail how
                     Indians became more self-confident because of their war
                     experiences, making their assimilation into the white
                     man's culture easier.

                Iverson, Peter. The Navajo Nation. Westport, Connecticut:
                     Greenwood Press, 1981.
                          This book gives a history of the Navajo Nation.
                     It also tells the story of the Navajo Code Talkers,
                     giving credit to them for saving the lives of many
                     Americans. It emphasizes the impact of Navajo
                     servicemen on their tribe when they returned from the
                     war.

                Kluckhorn, Clyde, and Dorothea Leighton. The Navaho.
                     Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
                     1958.
                         From this book I learned about many of the Navajos
                     ceremonies, including information on the Enemy Way and
                     the Blessing Way, rituals often performed before and
                     after Navajo warriors go to war.

      Parman, Donald L. The Navajos and the New Deal. London:
                     Yale University Press, 1976.
                         This source conveys the Navajo Code Talkers'
                     impact on their tribe after they returned from the war.
                     Navajo servicemen dropped their indifference toward
                     education after they realized that lack of fluency in
                     English and inadequate job skills badly handicapped
                     them in the armed services.

               Newcomb, Richard F. Iwo Jima. South Yarmouth,
                     Massachusetts: John Curly and Associates, Inc., 1965.
                         Much of my information about the battles of Iwo
                     Jima and Saipan came from this book. It is a
                     comprehensive look at the landing on Iwo Jima, giving
                     details on the terrain of the island, how nervous the
                     men were before the landing, how difficult and intense
                     the fight was, and messages sent as the battle
                     progressed. It also gives first hand views of the
                     fighting that took place on Iwo Jima.

              Paul, Dorris A. The Navaio Code Talkers. Pennsylvania:
                     Dorrance Publishing Company, 1973.
                        This is one of the rare compilations on the Navajo
                     Code Talkers. It was a detailed accounting of the
                     Navajo Code Talker Program from its conception through
                     the finale of the war. It gives personal insights into
                     Code Talkers' lives and shows how the war affected
                     them. The book includes a list of all 411 coded words
                     used by the Navajo Code Talkers. It also comments on
                     the effect the Code Talkers had on saving American
                     lives as well as the outcome of World War II.

               Underhill, Ruth M. The Navajos. Norman, Oklahoma:
                      University of Oklahoma Press, 1956.
                           This source highlights the reasons why the Navajos
                      were so adaptable to the life of the Marines. It tells
                      the Code Talker story and states there were Code
                      Talkers in Sicily and Italy as well as the Pacific
                      Theatre. These men were not fully acknowledged because
                      their commanders did not recognize and use their full
                      potential according to this author.

                                                               Magazines

               "The Navajo Code Talkers." The Book Shelf, September 1992,
                      3-6.
                           This article is mainly about the background of the
                      Navajo Code, although it addresses the Marines'
                      reaction to Phillip Johnston's idea. It also provides
                      information about the Navajos' cultural differences in
                      the Marines and how it was both an asset and a
                      detriment. It also has insight on why the Code Talkers
                      were not publicized greatly and why some Navajos are so
                      secretive about their wartime experiences.

                Belleranti, Shirley. "The Code That Couldn't Be Cracked."
                      The Retired Officer, November 1984, 33-35.
                          This is an article given to me by Frank Willetto,
                      a Navajo Code Talker. It talks extensively about the
                      Navajo Code Talkers' astounding influence in the battle
                      of Iwo Jima. It also includes information about the
                      Code Talkers' recognition.

               Davis, Goode Jr. "Proud Tradition of the Marines' Navajo
                      Code Talkers." Marine Corps League, Spring 1990, 16-
                      26.
                          This magazine article discusses the significant
                      impact of the Navajo Code Talkers in the battle of Iwo
                      Jima. It quotes Harold Foster, the "radio war chief."
                      It gives war experiences of many Navajo Code Talkers
                      and shows the way different Navajos adapted to war and
                      what they did after their time in the Marines was over.

                Gomez, David. "Navajo Code Talkers: U.S. Uses Native
                     Language as Secret Weapon in the Pacific-" New Mexico
                     Magazine, August 1990, 116-125.
                          This in-depth look at the Navajo Code Talkers had
                     information pertaining to the Navajos' courage,
                     intelligence, and communication skills, including the
                     ability of the Navajos not only to communicate fluently
                     in Navajo but in English. It gives details about how
                     the Navajo Code Talkers were used, when they landed,
                     and how they physically went about receiving and
                     sending messages. It also includes personal accounts
                     from Code Talkers.

               Hafford, William E. "The Navajo Code  'Talkers." Arizona
                     Highways, February 1989, 36-45.
                         This article stresses the importance of the Navajo
                     Code Talkers in saving lives. It also relates personal
                     experiences of Navajos being taken prisoner by American
                     forces. This article also provides information about
                     how Code Talkers related information to others.

               McCoy, Ron. "Navajo Code Talkers of World War II."
                   American West, November/December 1981, 67-75.
                         This article provides useful information on the
                     establishing of the secret Navajo code. It has
                     exclusive details regarding the security of the code,
                     including intelligence about the court-martial of
                     Phillip Johnston (the originator of the Navajo code) as
                     well as orders to shoot any Navajos seen taken captive
                     by the Japanese. In addition it provides extensive
                     information about the battle of Guadalcanal.
 

            Reference Works
 

            Weisberger, Bernard A., Ph.D., et. al, advisors. "World
                   War II." Family Encvclopedia-..of Amgrican History.
                   Pleasantville, California: Reader's Digest Association,
                   1975.
                        This source contains a commentary of events in
                   World War II. However, the key information that helped
                   me is a map of the South Pacific islands with the route
                   of United States offensives and dates of United States
                   victories. It helped put the war in perspective.

                Young, Robert, and William Morgan. The Navajo Language.
                     Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico
                     Press, 1980.
                          This dictionary is the first attempt at writing
                     the Navajo dialect. Robert Young, the co-author,
                     referred me to this work. It has a lengthy
                     introduction on how the Navajo Language was set up. In
                     the introduction it states an individual cannot learn
                     Navajo without having a person who speaks Navajo as a
                     first language show this individual where his tongue is
                     to be placed and how to structure the sentences.

                                                        Illustrations

               Figure 1: Kenji Kawano, Warriors: The Navajo Code Talkers
                     (Flagstaff, Arizona: Northland Publishing, 1990), 8.
               Figure 2: Kawano, 9.
               Figure 3: Kawano, 1.
               Figure 4: Photograph by Arcilee Frost.
               Figure 5: Photograph  by author.